Chemistry of the Elements

Chapter 1 Origin of the Elements. Isotopes and Atomic Weights

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Origin of the Universe

1.3 Stellar Evolution and the Spectral Classes of Stars

1.4 Synthesis of the Elements

1.4.1 Hydrogen burning

1.4.2 Helium burning and carbon burning

1.4.3 The α-process

1.4.4 The e-process (equilibrium process)

1.4.5 The s- and r-processes (slow and rapid neutron absorption)

1.4.6 The p-process (proton capture)

1.4.7 The x-process

1.5 Atomic Weights

1.5.1 Uncertainty in atomic weights

1.5.2 The problem of radioactive elements

1.6 Points to Ponder

Chapter 2 Chemical Periodicity and the Periodic Table

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The Electronic Structure of Atoms

2.3 Periodic Trends in Properties

2.3.1 Trends in atomic and physical properties

2.3.2 Trends in chemical properties

2.4 Prediction of New Elements and Compounds

2.5 Questions on the Periodic Table

Chapter 3 Hydrogen

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Atomic and Physical Properties of Hydrogen

3.2.1 Isotopes of hydrogen

3.2.2 Ortho- and para-hydrogen

3.2.3 Ionized forms of hydrogen

3.3 Preparation, Production, and Uses

3.3.1 Hydrogen

3.3.2 Deuterium

3.3.3 Tritium

3.4 Chemical Properties and Trends

3.4.1 Protonic acids and bases

3.5 The Hydrogen Bond

3.5.1 Influence on properties

3.5.2 Influence on structure

3.5.3 Strength of hydrogen bonds and theoretical description

3.6 Hydrides of the Elements

Chapter 4 Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium, and Francium

4.1 Introduction

4.2 The Elements

4.2.1 Discovery and isolation

4.2.2 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

4.2.3 Production and uses of the metals

4.2.4 Properties of the alkali metals

4.2.5 Chemical reactivity and trends

4.2.6 Solutions in liquid ammonia and other solvents

4.3 Compounds

4.3.1 Introduction: the ionic-bond model

4.3.2 Halides and hydrides

4.3.3 Oxides, peroxides, Superoxides, and suboxides

4.3.4 Hydroxides

4.3.5 Oxoacid salts and other compounds

4.3.6 Complexes, crowns, and crypts

4.3.7 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 5 Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and Radium

5.1 Introduction

5.2 The Elements

5.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

5.2.2 Production and uses of the metals

5.2.3 Properties of the elements

5.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

5.3 Compounds

5.3.1 Introduction

5.3.2 Hydrides and halides

5.3.3 Oxides and hydroxides

5.3.4 Oxoacid salts and coordination complexes

5.3.5 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 6 Boron

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Boron

6.2.1 Isolation and purification of the element

6.2.2 Structure of crystalline boron

6.2.3 Atomic and physical properties of boron

6.2.4 Chemical properties

6.3 Borides

6.3.1 Introduction

6.3.2 Preparation and stoichiometry

6.3.3 Structures of borides

6.4 Boranes (Boron Hydrides)

6.4.1 Introduction

6.4.2 Structure, bonding, and topology

6.4.3 Properties of boranes

6.4.4 Chemistry of diborane, B2H6

6.4.5 Chemistry of nido-pentaborane, B5H9

6.4.6 Chemistry of nido-decaborane, B10H14

6.4.7 Chemistry of closo-BnHn2-

6.5 Carboranes

6.6 Metallocarboranes

6.7 Boron Halides

6.7.1 Boron trihalides

6.7.2 Lower halides of boron

6.8 Boron-Oxygen Compounds

6.8.1 Boron oxides and oxoacids

6.8.2 Borates

6.8.3 Organic compounds containing boron-oxygen bonds

6.9 Boron-Nitrogen Compounds

6.10 Other Compounds of Boron

Chapter 7 Aluminium, Gallium, Indium, and Thallium

7.1 Introduction

7.2 The Elements

7.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

7.2.2 Preparation and uses of the metals

7.2.3 Properties of the elements

7.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

7.3 Compounds

7.3.1 Hydrides and related complexes

7.3.2 Halides and halide complexes

7.3.3 Oxides and hydroxides

7.3.4 Ternary and more complex oxide phases

7.3.5 Other inorganic compounds

7.3.6 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 8 Carbon

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Carbon

8.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

8.2.2 Allotropie forms

8.2.3 Atomic and physical properties

8.2.4 Chemical properties

8.3 Graphite Intercalation Compounds

8.4 Carbides

8.5 Hydrides, Halides, and Oxohalides

8.6 Oxides and Carbonates

8.7 Chalcogenides and Related Compounds

8.8 Cyanides and Other Carbon Nitrogen Compounds

8.9 Organometallic Compounds

8.9.1 Monohapto ligands

8.9.2 Dihapto ligands

8.9.3 Trihapto ligands

8.9.4 Tetrahapto ligands

8.9.5 Pentahapto ligands

8.9.6 Hexahapto ligands

8.9.7 Heptahapto and octahapto ligands

Chapter 9 Silicon

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Silicon

9.2.1 Occurrence and distribution

9.2.2 Isolation, production, and industrial uses

9.2.3 Atomic and physical properties

9.2.4 Chemical properties

9.3 Compounds

9.3.1 Suicides

9.3.2 Silicon hydrides (silanes)

9.3.3 Silicon halides and related complexes

9.3.4 Silica and silicic acids

9.3.5 Silicate minerals

9.3.6 Other inorganic compounds of silicon

9.3.7 Organosilicon compounds and silicones

Chapter 10 Germanium, Tin, and Lead

10.1 Introduction

10.2 The Elements

10.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

10.2.2 Production and uses of the elements

10.2.3 Properties of the elements

10.2.4 Chemical reactivity and group trends

10.3 Compounds

10.3.1 Hydrides and hydrohalides

10.3.2 Halides and related complexes

10.3.3 Oxides and hydroxides

10.3.4 Derivatives of oxoacids

10.3.5 Other inorganic compounds

10.3.6 Metal metal bonds and clusters

10.3.7 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 11 Nitrogen

11.1 Introduction

11.2 The Element

11.2.1 Abundance and distribution

11.2.2 Purification and uses of nitrogen

11.2.3 Atomic and physical properties

11.2.4 Chemical reactivity

11.3 Compounds

11.3.1 Nitrides, azides, and nitrido complexes

11.3.2 Ammonia and ammonium salts

11.3.3 Other hydrides of nitrogen

11.3.4 Thermodynamic relations between N-containing species

11.3.5 Nitrogen halides and related compounds

11.3.6 Oxides of nitrogen

11.3.7 Oxoacids, oxoanions, and oxoacid salts of nitrogen

Chapter 12 Phosphorus

12.1 Introduction

12.2 The Element

12.2.1 Abundance and distribution

12.2.2 Production and uses of elemental phosphorus

12.2.3 Allotropes of phosphorus

12.2.4 Atomic and physical properties

12.2.5 Chemical reactivity

12.3 Compounds

12.3.1 Phosphides

12.3.2 Phosphine and related compounds

12.3.3 Phosphorus halides

12.3.4 Oxohalides and thiohalides of phosphorus

12.3.5 Phosphorus oxides, sulfides, and oxosulfides

12.3.6 Oxoacids of phosphorus and their salts

12.3.7 Phosphorus-nitrogen compounds

12.3.8 Organophosphorus compounds

Chapter 13 Arsenic, Antimony, and Bismuth

13.1 Introduction

13.2 The Elements

13.2.1 Abundance, distribution, and extraction

13.2.2 Atomic and physical properties

13.2.3 Chemical reactivity and group trends

13.3 Compounds of Arsenic, Antimony, and Bismuth

13.3.1 Intermetallic compounds and alloys

13.3.2 Hydrides of arsenic, antimony, and bismuth

13.3.3 Halides and related complexes

13.3.4 Oxides and oxo compounds

13.3.5 Sulfides and related compounds

13.3.6 Metal-metal bonds and clusters

13.3.7 Other inorganic compounds

13.3.8 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 14 Oxygen

14.1 The Element

14.1.1 Introduction

14.1.2 Occurrence

14.1.3 Preparation

14.1.4 Atomic and physical properties

14.1.5 Other forms of oxygen

14.1.6 Chemical properties of dioxygen, O2

14.2 Compounds of Oxygen

14.2.1 Coordination chemistry: dioxygen as a ligand

14.2.2 Water

14.2.3 Hydrogen peroxide

14.2.4 Oxygen fluorides

14.2.5 Oxides

Chapter 15 Sulfur

15.1 The Element

15.1.1 Introduction

15.1.2 Abundance and distribution

15.1.3 Production and uses of elemental sulfur

15.1.4 Allotropes of sulfur

15.1.5 Atomic and physical properties

15.1.6 Chemical reactivity

15.2 Compounds of Sulfur

15.2.1 Sulfides of the metallic elements

15.2.2 Hydrides of sulfur (sulfanes)

15.2.3 Halides of sulfur

15.2.4 Oxohalides of sulfur

15.2.5 Oxides of sulfur

15.2.6 Oxoacids of sulfur

15.2.7 Sulfur-nitrogen compounds

Chapter 16 Selenium, Tellurium, and Polonium

16.1 The Elements

16.1.1 Introduction: history, abundance, distribution

16.1.2 Production and uses of the elements

16.1.3 Allotropy

16.1.4 Atomic and physical properties

16.1.5 Chemical reactivity and trends

16.1.6 Polyatomic cations, Mxn+

16.2 Compounds of Selenium, Tellurium, and Polonium

16.2.1 Selenides, tellurides, and polonides

16.2.2 Hydrides

16.2.3 Halides

16.2.4 Oxohalides and pseudohalides

16.2.5 Oxides

16.2.6 Hydroxides and oxoacids

16.2.7 Other inorganic compounds

16.2.8 Organo-compounds

Chapter 17 The Halogens: Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, and Astatine

17.1 The Elements

17.1.1 Introduction

17.1.2 Abundance and distribution

17.1.3 Production and uses of the elements

17.1.4 Atomic and physical properties

17.1.5 Chemical reactivity and trends

17.2 Compounds of Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine

17.2.1 Hydrogen halides, HX

17.2.2 Halides of the elements

17.2.3 Interhalogen compounds

17.2.4 Polyhalide anions

17.2.5 Polyhalonium cations, XY2n+

17.2.6 Halogen cations

17.2.7 Oxides of chlorine, bromine, and iodine

17.2.8 Oxoacids and oxoacid salts

17.2.9 Halogen oxide fluorides and related compounds

17.2.10 Halogen derivatives of oxoacids

17.3 The Chemistry of Astatine

Chapter 18 The Noble Gases: Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, and Radon

18.1 Introduction

18.2 The Elements

18.2.1 Distribution, production, and uses

18.2.2 Atomic and physical properties of the elements

18.3 Chemistry of the Noble Gases

18.3.1 Clathrates

18.3.2 Compounds of xenon

18.3.3 Compounds of other noble gases

Chapter 19 Coordination Compounds

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Types of Ligand

19.3 Stability of Coordination Compounds

19.4 The Various Coordination Numbers

19.5 Isomerism

19.6 The Coordinate Bond

19.7 Crystal Field Theory

19.8 Colours of Complexes

19.9 Thermodynamic Effects of Crystal Field Splitting

19.10 Magnetic Properties

19.11 Ligand Field Theory

19.12 Molecular Orbital Theory

Chapter 20 Scandium, Yttrium, Lanthanum, and Actinium

20.1 Introduction

20.2 The Elements

20.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

20.2.2 Preparation and uses of the metals

20.2.3 Properties of the elements

20.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

20.3 Compounds of Scandium, Yttrium, Lanthanum, and Actinium

20.3.1 Simple compounds

20.3.2 Complexes

20.3.3 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 21 Titanium, Zirconium, and Hafnium

21.1 Introduction

21.2 The Elements

21.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

21.2.2 Preparation and uses of the metals

21.2.3 Properties of the elements

21.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

21.3 Compounds of Titanium, Zirconium, and Hafnium

21.3.1 Oxides and sulfides

21.3.2 Mixed, or complex, oxides

21.3.3 Halides

21.3.4 Compounds with oxoanions

21.3.5 Complexes

21.3.6 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 22 Vanadium, Niobium, and Tantalum

22.1 Introduction

22.2 The Elements

22.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

22.2.2 Preparation and uses of the metals

22.2.3 Atomic and physical properties of the elements

22.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

22.3 Compounds of Vanadium, Niobium, and Tantalum

22.3.1 Oxides

22.3.2 Isopolymetallates

22.3.3 Sulfides, selenides, and tellurides

22.3.4 Halides and oxohalides

22.3.5 Compounds with oxoanions

22.3.6 Complexes

22.3.7 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 23 Chromium, Molybdenum, and Tungsten

23.1 Introduction

23.2 The Elements

23.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

23.2.2 Preparation and uses of the metals

23.2.3 Properties of the elements

23.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

23.3 Compounds of Chromium, Molybdenum, and Tungsten

23.3.1 Oxides of chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten

23.3.2 Isopolymetallates

23.3.3 Heteropolymetallates

23.3.4 Tungsten and molybdenum bronzes

23.3.5 Sulfides, selenides, and tellurides

23.3.6 Halides and oxohalides

23.3.7 Complexes of chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten

23.3.8 Biological activity and nitrogen fixation

23.3.9 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 24 Manganese, Technetium, and Rhenium

24.1 Introduction

24.2 The Elements

24.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

24.2.2 Preparation and uses of the metals

24.2.3 Properties of the elements

24.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

24.3 Compounds of Manganese, Technetium, and Rhenium

24.3.1 Oxides and chalcogenides

24.3.2 Oxoanions

24.3.3 Halides and oxohalides

24.3.4 Complexes of manganese, technetium, and rhenium

24.3.5 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 25 Iron, Ruthenium, and Osmium

25.1 Introduction

25.2 The Elements

25.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

25.2.2 Preparation and uses of the elements

25.2.3 Properties of the elements

25.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

25.3 Compounds of Iron, Ruthenium, and Osmium

25.3.1 Oxides and other chalcogenides

25.3.2 Mixed metal oxides and oxoanions

25.3.3 Halides and oxohalides

25.3.4 Complexes

25.3.5 The biochemistry of iron

25.3.6 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 26 Cobalt, Rhodium, and Iridium

26.1 Introduction

26.2 The Elements

26.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

26.2.2 Preparation and uses of the elements

26.2.3 Properties of the elements

26.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

26.3 Compounds of Cobalt, Rhodium, and Iridium

26.3.1 Oxides and sulfides

26.3.2 Halides

26.3.3 Complexes

26.3.4 The biochemistry of cobalt

26.3.5 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 27 Nickel, Palladium, and Platinum

27.1 Introduction

27.2 The Elements

27.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

27.2.2 Preparation and uses of the elements

27.2.3 Properties of the elements

27.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

27.3 Compounds of Nickel, Palladium, and Platinum

27.3.1 The Pd/H2 system

27.3.2 Oxides and chalcogenides

27.3.3 Halides

27.3.4 Complexes

27.3.5 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 28 Copper, Silver, and Gold

28.1 Introduction

28.2 The Elements

28.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

28.2.2 Preparation and uses of the elements

28.2.3 Atomic and physical properties of the elements

28.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

28.3 Compounds of Copper, Silver, and Gold

28.3.1 Oxides and sulfides

28.3.2 Halides

28.3.3 Photography

28.3.4 Complexes

28.3.5 Biochemistry of copper

28.3.6 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 29 Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury

29.1 Introduction

29.2 The Elements

29.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

29.2.2 Preparation and uses of the elements

29.2.3 Properties of the elements

29.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

29.3 Compounds of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury

29.3.1 Oxides and chalcogenides

29.3.2 Halides

29.3.3 Mercury(I)

29.3.4 Zinc(II) and cadmium(II)

29.3.5 Mercury(II)

29.3.6 Organometallic compounds

29.3.7 Biological and environmental importance

Chapter 30 The Lanthanide Elements (Z = 58-71)

30.1 Introduction

30.2 The Elements

30.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

30.2.2 Preparation and uses

30.2.3 Properties of the elements

30.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

30.3 Compounds of the Lanthanides

30.3.1 Oxides and chalcogenides

30.3.2 Halides

30.3.3 Magnetic and spectroscopic properties

30.3.4 Complexes

30.3.5 Organometallic compounds

Chapter 31 The Actinide Elements (Z = 90-103)

31.1 Introduction

31.2 The Elements

31.2.1 Terrestrial abundance and distribution

31.2.2 Preparation and uses of the elements

31.2.3 Properties of the elements

31.2.4 Chemical reactivity and trends

31.3 Compounds of the Actinides

31.3.1 Oxides and chalcogenides

31.3.2 Mixed metal oxides

31.3.3 Halides

31.3.4 Magnetic and spectroscopic properties

31.3.5 Complexes

31.3.6 Organometallic compounds

Appendix 1 Atomic Orbitals

Appendix 2 Symmetry Elements, Symmetry Operations, and Point Groups

Appendix 3 Some Non-SI Units and Conversion Factors

Appendix 4 Abundance of Elements in Crustal Rocks

Appendix 5 Effective Ionic Radii

Appendix 6 Nobel Prize for Chemistry

Appendix 7 Nobel Prize for Physics

Index