Chemistry, Manufacture and Applications of Natural Rubber

Part I: Properties and processing of natural rubber

1. Biosynthesis of natural rubber (NR) in different rubber-producing species

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Rubber biosynthesis

1.3 Rubber particles and rubber biosynthesis

1.4 Kinetic analyses of rubber transferase

1.5 Regulation of biosynthetic rate

1.6 Regulation of molecular weight

1.7 Identification and purification of rubber transferase

1.8 Conclusions

1.9 Acknowledgments

1.10 References

2. Natural rubber (NR) biosynthesis: perspectives from polymer chemistry

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Background on natural rubber (NR)

2.3 Synthetic polyisoprenes (PIPs)

2.4 Biosynthesis of NR

2.5 In vitro biosynthesis of NR

2.6 NR in health care

2.7 Future trends

2.8 Acknowledgments

2.9 References and further reading

3. Chemical modification of natural rubber (NR) for improved performance

3.1 Introduction: The role of chemical modification in creating high-performance natural rubber (NR)

3.2 The main types of chemical modification of NR

3.3 Chemical modification by changing the structure or weight of rubber molecules

3.4 Chemical modification of the carbon–carbon double bond

3.5 Chemical modification by grafting molecules of a different polymer type

3.6 Conclusions: Key issues in improving the properties of NR

3.7 Future trends

3.8 Sources of further information and advice

3.9 References

4. Understanding network control by vulcanization for sulfur cross-linked natural rubber (NR)

4.1 Introduction: The importance of sulfur cross-linking of rubber

4.2 Using small-angle neutron scattering to analyze the network structure of sulfur cross-linked cis- 1,4- polyisoprene

4.3 Network control in sulfur cross-linked cis- 1,4- polyisoprene

4.4 Effect of network structure on strain-induced crystallization of sulfur cross-linked cis-1,4- polyisoprene

4.5 Future trends: Key issues in improving the properties of natural rubber (NR)

4.6 Acknowledgments

4.7 References

5. The effect of strain-induced crystallization (SIC) on the physical properties of natural rubber (NR)

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Temperature-induced crystallization (TIC) and strain-induced crystallization (SIC)

5.3 Stress relaxation and SIC

5.4 Stress–strain relation and SIC

5.5 Tear resistance and SIC

5.6 Green strength and SIC

5.7 Conclusions

5.8 Acknowledgment

5.9 References

6. Generating particulate silica fillers in situ to improve the mechanical properties of natural rubber (NR)

6.1 Introduction: Silica as a filler for rubber

6.2 Particulate silica generated in situ

6.3 Recent processes for adding filler to rubber

6.4 Applications of in situ silica

6.5 Conclusions: Key issues in improving the properties of natural rubber (NR)

6.6 Future trends

6.7 Acknowledgments

6.8 References

7. Hydrophobic and hydrophilic silica-filled cross-linked natural rubber (NR): structure and properties

7.1 Introduction: Silica reinforcement of natural rubber (NR)

7.2 Testing hydrophobic and hydrophilic silica fillers: sample preparation

7.3 Methods for analyzing silica filler behavior in cross-linked NR matrix

7.4 Understanding the behavior of hydrophobic and hydrophilic silica fillers in cross-linked NR matrix

7.5 Comparing hydrophobic and hydrophilic silica-filled cross-linked NR

7.6 Conclusions

7.7 Future trends

7.8 Acknowledgments

7.9 References

8. Computer simulation of network formation in natural rubber (NR)

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Simulation methods for cold mastication of natural rubber (NR)

8.3 Simulation methods for vulcanization of NR

8.4 Summary

8.5 Future trends

8.6 Sources of further information and advice

8.7 Acknowledgement

8.8 References

8.9 Appendix: Basic concept of cascade theory

Part II: Applications of natural rubber

9. Eco-friendly bio-composites using natural rubber (NR) matrices and natural fiber reinforcements

9.1 Introduction

9.2 The importance of eco-friendly bio-composites from natural rubber (NR)

9.3 Natural fiber reinforcement materials for NR bio-composites

9.4 Factors influencing the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement

9.5 Methods to improve the properties of NR biocomposites

9.6 Physical properties of NR bio-composites

9.7 Processing of NR bio-composites

9.8 Applications of NR-based bio-composites with NR reinforcements

9.9 Future trends

9.10 Sources of further information and advice

9.11 References

10. Natural rubber (NR) composites using cellulosic fiber reinforcements

10.1 Introduction: The importance of natural rubber (NR)/cellulose composites

10.2 NR/cellulose composites

10.3 NR/natural cellulose nanocomposites

10.4 NR/regenerated cellulose nanocomposites

10.5 Applications

10.6 Future trends

10.7 References

11. Soft bio-composites from natural rubber (NR) and marine products

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Processes and materials for developing natural rubber (NR) composites

11.3 Effects of marine product fillers on rubber composites

11.4 Conclusion

11.5 Future trends

11.6 Sources of further information and advice

11.7 References

12. Natural rubber (NR) for the tyre industry

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Tyre types, manufacture and requirements

12.3 Natural rubber (NR) properties required in tyre manufacture

12.4 NR properties required in tyre products

12.5 Examples of NR use in demanding tyre applications

12.6 Quality standards for NR as a raw material

12.7 Future trends

12.8 References

13. Application of epoxidized natural rubber (NR) in pressure sensitive adhesives (PSAs)

13.1 Introduction to pressure sensitive adhesives (PSAs)

13.2 Processing of natural rubber (NR) and NR-based PSAs

13.3 Assessing the performance of a PSA

13.4 The use of epoxidized NR as an adhesive

13.5 Effect of coating thickness

13.6 Effect of tackifier and filler

13.7 Effect of molecular weight

13.8 Effect of testing rate

13.9 Other factors affecting performance

13.10 Future trends

13.11 Sources of further information and advice

13.12 References

14. Use of natural rubber (NR) for vibration isolation and earthquake protection of structures

14.1 Introduction

14.2 The concept of vibration isolation and earthquake protection

14.3 Vibration isolation and earthquake protection systems

14.4 Characteristics of natural rubber (NR) for vibration isolation and earthquake protection

14.5 Conclusion

14.6 References

Part III: Environmental and safety issues

15. Improving the sustainable development of natural rubber (NR)

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Supply and demand of natural rubber (NR) in the twenty-first century

15.3 Biodiversity

15.4 Applications of state-of-the-art biotechnology

15.5 Biosafety

15.6 Conclusion and future trends

15.7 References

16. Recycling of natural and synthetic isoprene rubbers

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Approaches to the reuse and recycling of natural rubber (NR)

16.3 Reuse of NR

16.4 Recycling of NR

16.5 Recycling of synthetic isoprene rubber

16.6 Future trends

16.7 Conclusions

16.8 Acknowledgements

16.9 References

17. Recycling of sulfur cross-linked natural rubber (NR) using supercritical carbon dioxide

17.1 Introduction: Key problems in recycling sulfur cross-linked natural rubber (NR)

17.2 Advantages of supercritical CO₂ (scCO₂) for the devulcanization of sulfur cross-linked rubber

17.3 Devulcanization of sulfur cross-linked NR in scCO₂

17.4 Devulcanization of carbon black-filled sulfur cross-linked NR

17.5 Devulcanization of an NR-based truck tire vulcanizate

17.6 The role of scCO₂ in the devulcanization of sulfur cross-linked rubber

17.7 Conclusion: Key issues in ensuring effective recycling of sulfur cross-linked NR

17.8 Future trends

17.9 Acknowledgements

17.10 References

18. Recent research on natural rubber latex (NRL) allergy

18.1 Introduction: The problem of natural rubber latex (NRL) allergy

18.2 Medical background to NRL allergy

18.3 Mechanisms of development and clinical presentation of NRL allergy

18.4 Recent trends in the prevalence of NRL allergy

18.5 Key issues in reducing NRL allergy

18.6 Future trends

18.7 Conclusion

18.8 Sources of further information and advice

18.9 References

18.10 Appendix: Abbreviations