Breathing, Emotion and Evolution
- 1st Edition, Volume 212 - September 4, 2014
- Latest edition
- Editors: Gert Holstege, Caroline M. Beers, Hari H. Subramanian
- Language: English
Respiration is one of the most basic motor activities crucial for survival of the individual. It is under total control of the central nervous system, which adjusts respiratory de… Read more
Respiration is one of the most basic motor activities crucial for survival of the individual. It is under total control of the central nervous system, which adjusts respiratory depth and frequency depending on the circumstances the individual finds itself. For this reason this volume not only reviews the basic control systems of respiration, located in the caudal brainstem, but also the higher brain regions, that change depth and frequency of respiration. Scientific knowledge of these systems is crucial for understanding the problems in the many patients suffering from respiratory failure.
- This well-established international series examines major areas of basic and clinical research within neuroscience, as well as emerging subfields.
This volume not only provides essential information for neuroscientists involved in respiration research, but also for clinicians treating patients with respiratory problems.
- Preface
- Chapter 1: Physiological and pathophysiological interactions between the respiratory central pattern generator and the sympathetic nervous system
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Respiratory Modulation of Sympathetic Activity
- 3 Respiratory Baroreflex
- 4 Respiratory–sympathetic Chemoreflex
- 5 Chronic Intermittent Hypoxia
- 6 Unified Theoretical Framework for Respiratory–Sympathetic Coupling: Limitations and Perspectives
- Acknowledgments
- Chapter 2: Coupling of respiratory and sympathetic activities in rats submitted to chronic intermittent hypoxia
- Abstract
- 1 Sympathetic Nervous System and Its Interaction with the Respiratory Network
- 2 Central Mechanisms Underlying Respiratory–Sympathetic Coupling
- 3 Relevance of Respiratory–Sympathetic Coupling Dysfunctions to the Development of Systemic Hypertension
- 4 Perspectives
- Acknowledgments
- Chapter 3: Function and modulation of premotor brainstem parasympathetic cardiac neurons that control heart rate by hypoxia-, sleep-, and sleep-related diseases including obstructive sleep apnea
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Autonomic Control of Cardiac Function
- 3 Responses to Hypoxia
- 4 Cardiovascular Regulation During Sleep
- 5 Cardiovascular Changes with sleep-related Diseases such as OSA
- 6 Conclusions
- Acknowledgments
- Chapter 4: Discharge properties of upper airway motor units during wakefulness and sleep
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction and Background
- 2 Upper Airway Muscle Recording and Analysis Techniques
- 3 Upper Airway Motor Unit Discharge Patterns
- 4 Manipulations of sleep–wake State and Respiratory Drive
- 5 Overview
- Chapter 5: Effects of calcium (Ca2 +) extrusion mechanisms on electrophysiological properties in a hypoglossal motoneuron: Insight from a mathematical model
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Methods
- 3 Results
- 4 Discussion
- Acknowledgment
- Chapter 6: Using a computational model to analyze the effects of firing frequency on synchrony of a network of gap junction-coupled hypoglossal motoneurons
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Methods and Simulation Details
- 3 Results
- 4 Discussion
- Chapter 7: The physiological significance of postinspiration in respiratory control
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Postinspiration During Eupnea
- 3 Postinspiratory Activity During Breath-Holding and Expulsive Reflexes that Protect the Respiratory Tract
- 4 Postinspiratory Activity During Nonventilatory Behavior
- 5 Central Origins of Postinspiratory Motor Activity
- 6 Clinical Implications of Disturbances to Postinspiratory Control
- 7 Concluding Remarks and Outlook
- Chapter 8: Expiration: Breathing's other face
- Abstract
- 1 How Air Breathing Evolved Is Still Debated
- 2 The Evolution of the Aspiration Pump Began with an Expiratory Pump
- 3 In the Ancestral Breathing Cycle, Inspiration Follows Expiration, Which Is in Turn Followed by Glottal Closure
- 4 The end-inspiratory Pause Is a Major Controlled Variable in the Cycle
- 5 The Phases of the Respiratory Cycle in Mammals Appear to Be Homologous to Those in Reptiles
- 6 The Postinspiratory Pause Is a Major Controlled Variable in the Cycle
- 7 The Occurrence of Active Expiration in Mammals
- 8 Control of Expiration
- 9 Presence of an Expiratory Rhythm Generator
- 10 Phylogeny of the Rhythm Generators
- 11 Summary
- Acknowledgment
- Chapter 9: The effects of head-up and head-down tilt on central respiratory chemoreflex loop gain tested by hyperoxic rebreathing
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Methods
- 3 Results
- 4 Discussion
- 5 Conclusion
- Acknowledgments
- Chapter 10: The challenges of respiratory motor system recovery following cervical spinal cord injury
- Abstract
- 1 Cervical Spinal Cord Injury and the Deficit in Respiratory Motor Function
- 2 Organization of the Respiratory Motor Circuitry and the Crossed Phrenic Phenomenon
- 3 Modeling Respiratory Motor Function Following Cervical Spinal Cord Injury
- 4 Intrinsic Factors Controlling Respiratory Motor Recovery Following Cervical SCI
- 5 Extrinsic Factors Controlling Respiratory Motor Recovery Following Cervical SCI
- 6 Future Directions: Integration of Treatment Strategies and Outcome Measures
- 7 Concluding Remarks
- Acknowledgments
- Chapter 11: Intermittent hypoxia-induced respiratory long-term facilitation is dominated by enhanced burst frequency, not amplitude, in spontaneously breathing urethane-anesthetized neonatal rats
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Methods
- 3 Results
- 4 Discussion
- Chapter 12: Chronic nitric oxide synthase inhibition does not impair upper airway muscle adaptation to chronic intermittent hypoxia in the rat
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Methods
- 3 Results
- 4 Discussion
- Acknowledgment
- Chapter 13: The generation of pharyngeal phase of swallow and its coordination with breathing: Interaction between the swallow and respiratory central pattern generators
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Swallow and Breathing Coordination: “Safe Swallows”
- 3 Interaction Between Swallow and Respiratory CPGs Enabling Swallowing and Breathing Coordination
- 4 Summary and Perspectives
- Chapter 14: Control of coughing by medullary raphé
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Raphé Neurons and Respiratory Control
- 3 Raphé Neurons Control of Coughing and Other Reflex Behaviors
- 4 Concluding Remarks
- Acknowledgment
- Chapter 15: The respiratory-vocal system of songbirds: Anatomy, physiology, and neural control
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Peripheral Mechanics of Breathing in (Song)birds
- 3 Central Organization of Respiratory-Related Neurons
- 4 Linking the “song System” to the Vocal-respiratory Hindbrain
- 5 Song Production and the “respiratory-thalamo-cortical” Pathway
- 6 Concluding Remarks
- Acknowledgments
- Chapter 16: The lamprey blueprint of the mammalian nervous system
- Abstract
- 1 The Motor Infrastructure
- 2 The Forebrain Control of the Brainstem–Spinal Cord Motor Programs
- 3 Conclusion
- Acknowledgments
- Chapter 17: The midbrain periaqueductal gray changes the eupneic respiratory rhythm into a breathing pattern necessary for survival of the individual and of the species
- Abstract
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Functional Segregation Within the PAG
- 3 The PAG Connectome
- 4 PAG integrates Respiratory Responses
- 5 PAG-induced Respiratory Patterning
- 6 Vocalization: A Modified Form of Breathing
- 7 PAG Control of the Crural and Costal Diaphragm
- 8 PAG Control of Intra-abdominal Pressure
- 9 PAG Control of Medullary Respiratory Neurons
- 10 Hypothalamic Mediation of Dorsal PAG-induced Respiratory Effect
- 11 Pharmacology of PAG-Induced Respiratory Modulation
- 12 PAG, Serotonin, and Level-Setting Systems
- 13 Chemosensory, Upper Airway, and Pulmonary Afferent Information to the PAG
- 14 Amygdala–PAG Interactions
- 15 Breathing and the PAG: Therapeutic Targets for the Treatment of Emotional and Psychiatric Disorders
- 16 Conclusion
- Acknowledgment
- Index
- Other volumes in PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH
- Edition: 1
- Latest edition
- Volume: 212
- Published: September 4, 2014
- Language: English
GH
Gert Holstege
Gert Holstege has published many of his most relevant papers in Progress in Brain Research. The first Progress in Brain Research paper appeared in 1982 in which he, together with Hans Kuypers showed the organization of the descending pathways from the brainstem to the spinal cord (Holstege and Kuypers, 1982),. In this paper he was the first to demonstrate which pathways controlled respiration by accessing motoneurons innervating the diaphragm, intercostal and abdominal muscles and the pelvic floor. In 1989 he published a paper explaining that the periaqueductal gray (PAG) produced vocalization by means of its projection to the nucleus retroambiguus, which, in turn, projects to respiration related motoneurons (Holstege, 1989). This system also produces sound production in humans. In a Progress in Brain Research paper of 1991 Holstege, for the first time, showed that respiration is similarly organized as other specific control systems as blood pressure, heart frequency, micturition and mating control systems (Holstege, 1991). In a Progress in Brain Research Volume chapter in 1996, Holstege, together with Bandler and Saper brought all these motor systems together with their midbrain and higher level control systems in the concept of the Emotional Motor System (Holstege et al., 1996).
Studies using PET-scanning demonstrated that the micturition control system in humans was almost identical to that in cats (Blok et al., 1997). It explained also the reason why so many elderly suffer from overactive bladder and urge-incontinence. This problem, one of the most costly in healthcare in general, is caused by the many small infarctions in the white matter of the prefrontal cortex interrupting the connections between the medial orbitofrontal cortex and the PAG as the central micturition control system.
Since in the cat also the hardware of sexual behavior has been detected, Holstege and co-workers also investigated the brain function during sexual activities in humans, which revealed that the same centers in the pontine reticular formation controlled ejaculation and female orgasm, again similar to the cat control systems (Huynh et al., 2013).
In simple terms the brainstem runs all the basic motor systems via specific projections to the motoneurons in the spinal cord that execute the motor act, not only respiration, but also heart rate, blood pressure, micturition, defecation, and sexual activities. In all likelihood, parturition in women will also be under control of these systems (Holstege, 2014).
Blok, B. F., Willemsen, A. T. and Holstege, G. (1997). A pet study on brain control of micturition in humans. Brain 120 ( Pt 1), 111-121. Holstege, G. (1989). Anatomical study of the final common pathway for vocalization in the cat. J Comp Neurol 284, 242-252. Holstege, G. (1991). Descending motor pathways and the spinal motor system: Limbic and non-limbic components. Prog Brain Res 87, 307-421. Holstege, G. (2014). The periaqueductal gray controls brainstem emotional motor systems including respiration. Progress in Brain Research in press. Holstege, G. and Kuypers, H. G. (1982). The anatomy of brain stem pathways to the spinal cord in cat. A labeled amino acid tracing study. Prog Brain Res 57, 145-175. Holstege, G., Bandler, R. and Saper, C. B. (1996). The emotional motor system. Prog Brain Res 107, 3-6. Huynh, H. K., Willemsen, A., Lovick, T. A. and Holstege, G. (2013). Pontine control of ejaculation and female orgasm. J. Sex. Med. in press.
CB
Caroline M. Beers
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