Biofuels for Aviation

Section I: An Overview of the Sector

Chapter 1. The Prospects for Biofuels in Aviation

• Abstract
• 1.1 Introduction
• 1.2 Growth in Air Transportation, Fuel Use, and CO₂ Emissions
• 1.3 Government and Industry Initiatives to Control Air Transportation CO₂ Emissions
• 1.4 Transportation System CO₂ Intensity
• 1.5 Aircraft CO₂ Intensity
• 1.6 Reducing Air Transportation CO₂ Intensity
• 1.7 Biofuels for Aviation: Opportunities and Challenges
• 1.8 Conclusions
• References

Chapter 2. Feedstocks for Aviation Biofuels

• Abstract
• 2.1 Feedstocks for Bio-Derived Aviation Fuels
• 2.2 Challenges and Opportunities
• 2.3 Summary
• References

Chapter 3. Certification and Performance: What Is Needed from an Aviation Fuel?

• Abstract
• 3.1 Introduction to Relevant Standards
• 3.2 Discussion of Some Drop-In Fuel Property Requirements
• 3.3 Speculation on Possible Future Changes in ASTM 7566 Requirements
• 3.4 Prospects for All-New, Non-Drop-In Fuels
• References

Section II: The Science and Technology of Developing Biofuels for Aviation

Chapter 4. The Suitability of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) as Blending Agents in Jet A-1

• Abstract
• 4.1 An Introduction to FAME in Jet A-1
• 4.2 Methods Used in the Testing of FAME Components in Jet-A1
• 4.3 Application and Testing of Specific FAME Blends
• 4.4 Material Compatibility With DFAME
• 4.5 Conclusions
• Acknowledgements
• References

Chapter 5. Aviation Biofuels Through Lipid Hydroprocessing

• Abstract
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.2 Effect of Catalysts on Lipid Hydroprocessing
• 5.3 Kinetics, Reaction Mechanisms, and Pathways
• 5.4 Path Forward and Challenges
• 5.5 Conclusion
• References

Chapter 6. Low-Carbon Aviation Fuel Through the Alcohol to Jet Pathway

• Abstract
• Acronyms and Abbreviations
• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.2 Background
• 6.3 Approaches to Producing Synthetic Paraffin Kerosene (SPK) Jet Fuel From Ethanol
• 6.4 Adjusting the Aromatic Content of the Product
• 6.5 Market Drivers for Ethanol to Jet Fuel
• 6.6 Conclusions and Recommendations
• Acknowledgements
• References

Chapter 7. Metabolic Engineering Strategies to Convert Carbohydrates to Aviation Range Hydrocarbons

• Abstract
• 7.1 Introduction
• 7.2 Fatty Acid-Derived Aviation Range Biofuels
• 7.3 Isoprenoids as Aviation Fuels
• References

Chapter 8. Pyrolysis of Biomass for Aviation Fuel

• Abstract
• 8.1 Introduction
• 8.2 Pyrolysis Feedstocks
• 8.3 Bio-oil Composition and Properties
• 8.4 Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass
• 8.5 Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass
• 8.6 Jet Fuel-Specific Pyrolysis
• 8.7 Conclusions and Final Remarks
• References

Chapter 9. Towards an Aviation Fuel Through the Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Algae

• Abstract
• 9.1 Introduction
• 9.2 Hydrothermal Processing of Algal Feedstocks
• 9.3 Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Microalgae
• 9.4 Macroalgae as a Feedstock: Prospects and Challenges
• 9.5 Characteristics of Bio-Crude Oil From Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Algae
• 9.6 Continuous HTL Systems and Challenges in Advancing the Technology
• 9.7 Process Integration for an Advanced Biorefinery
• 9.8 Conclusions and Future Direction
• References

Chapter 10. Aviation Turbine Fuels Through the Fischer–Tropsch Process

• Abstract
• 10.1 Introduction
• 10.2 Molecular Properties Required by Aviation Turbine Fuels
• 10.3 Composition of Products From Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
• 10.4 Jet Fuel Blending Components From Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
• 10.5 On-Specification Jet Fuel From Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
• 10.6 Conclusions
• References

Chapter 11. Current and Potential Aviation Additives for Higher Biofuel Blends in Jet A-1

• Abstract
• 11.1 Introduction
• 11.2 Approved Additives for Alternative Fuels
• 11.3 Looking to the Future: Potential Additives for Alternative Fuels
• References

Section III: Testing, Assessment and the Future

Chapter 12. Life Cycle Assessment of Biojet Fuels

• Abstract
• 12.1 Introduction
• 12.2 Historical Aspects and Definitions
• 12.3 LCA Guidelines
• 12.4 LCA of Biojet Fuels
• 12.5 Final Comments
• References

Chapter 13. Government Policy on Delivering Biofuels for the Aviation Sector

• Abstract
• 13.1 Biofuels in the Aviation Sector – Current Status and Expectations
• 13.2 Policies Influencing the Market Introduction of Biojet Fuels
• 13.3 Sustainability and Certification Issues
• 13.4 Conclusion and Outlook: What Is Necessary to Bring Biojet Fuels into the Markets
• References

Chapter 14. Sustainable Aviation: A UK Roadmap for Sustainable Aviation Fuels

• Abstract
• 14.1 Introduction
• 14.2 Sustainability
• 14.3 Developing Sustainable Fuels
• 14.4 Sustainable Fuel Supply Potential
• 14.5 The UK Value in Developing Sustainable Fuels
• 14.6 Overcoming Development Barriers
• 14.7 Enabling Sustainable Fuels in the United Kingdom
• 14.8 The Sustainable Aviation Fuels Roadmap
• References

Chapter 15. Roadmap to a Sustainable Aviation Biofuel: A Brazilian Case Study

• Abstract
• 15.1 Introduction
• 15.2 Agricultural Feedstocks in Brazil: Existing and Potentially Available
• 15.3 Availability of Land in Brazil for Biofuels
• 15.4 Sustainability of Aviation Biofuel Production in Brazil
• 15.5 Possible Pathways for Biofuels for Aviation in Brazil
• 15.6 Roadmap Summary for Brazil: Limiting Factors and Policy Recommendations
• 15.7 Conclusions
• Acknowledgements
• References

Appendix A. Standard and Alternative Fuel Specifications

• A.1 Fuel Additives
• A.2 Jet A, Jet A-1, and JP-8 Specifications
• A.3 Approved Nonconventional Fuels
• A.4 Jet-P 9 and 10 Select Specifications

Appendix B. Commercial Biofuel Flight Demonstrations (Data Collected by Innovate Washington 2013)