Atmosphere—Ocean Dynamics

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter One How the Ocean-Atmosphere System Is Driven


1.1 Introduction


1.2 The Amount of Energy Received by the Earth


1.3 Radiative Equilibrium Models


1.4 The Greenhouse Effect


1.5 Effects of Convection


1.6 Effects of Horizontal Gradients


1.7 Variability in Radiative Driving of the Earth

Chapter Two Transfer of Properties between Atmosphere and Ocean


2.1 Introduction


2.2 Contrasts in Properties of Ocean and Atmosphere


2.3 Momentum Transfer between Air and Sea, and the Atmosphere's Angular Momentum Balance


2.4 Dependence of Exchange Rates on Air-Sea Velocity, Temperature, and Humidity Differences


2.5 The Hydrological Cycle


2.6 The Heat Balance of the Ocean


2.7 Surface Density Changes and the ThermohaHne Circulation of the Ocean

Chapter Three Properties of a Fluid at Rest


3.1 The Equation of State


3.2 Thermodynamic Variables


3.3 Values of Thermodynamic Quantities for the Ocean and Atmosphere


3.4 Phase Changes


3.5 Balance of Forces in a Fluid at Rest


3.6 Static Stability


3.7 Quantities Associated with Stability


3.8 Stability of a Saturated Atmosphere


3.9 Graphical Representation of Vertical Soundings

Chapter Four Equations Satisfied by a Moving Fluid


4.1 Properties of a Material Element


4.2 Mass Conservation Equation


4.3 Balance for a Scalar Quantity like Salinity


4.4 The Internal Energy (or Heat) Equation


4.5 The Equation of Motion


4.6 Mechanical Energy Equation


4.7 Total Energy Equation


4.8 Bernoulli's Equation


4.9 Systematic Effects of Diffusion


4.10 Summary List of the Governing Equations


4.11 Boundary Conditions


4.12 A Coordinate System for Planetary Scale Motions

Chapter Five Adjustment under Gravity in a Nonrotating System


5.1 Introduction : Adjustment to Equilibrium


5.2 Perturbations from the Rest State for a Homogenous Inviscid Fluid


5.3 Surface Gravity Waves


5.4 Dispersion


5.5 Short-Wave and Long-Wave Approximations


5.6 Shallow-Water Equations Derived Using the Hydrostatic Approximation


5.7 Energetics of Shallow-Water Motion


5.8 Seiches and Tides in Channels and Gulfs

Chapter Six Adjustment under Gravity of a Density-Stratified Fluid


6.1 Introduction


6.2 The Case of Two Superposed Fluids of Different Density


6.3 The Baroclinic Mode and the Rigid Lid Approximation


6.4 Adjustments within a Continuously Stratified Incompressible Fluid


6.5 Internal Gravity Waves


6.6 Dispersion Effects


6.7 Energetics of Internal Waves


6.8 Internal Waves Generated at a Horizontal Boundary


6.9 Effects on Boundary-Generated Waves of Variations of Buoyancy Frequency with Height


6.10 Free Waves in the Presence of Boundaries


6.11 Waves of Large Horizontal Scale: Normal Modes


6.12 An Example of Adjustment to Equilibrium in a Stratified Fluid


6.13 Resolution into Normal Modes for the Ocean


6.14 Adjustment to Equilibrium in a Stratified Compressible Fluid


6.15 Examples of Adjustment in a Compressible Atmosphere


6.16 Weak Dispersion of a Pulse


6.17 Isobaric Coordinates


6.18 The Vertically Integrated Perturbation Energy Equation in Isobaric Coordinates

Chapter Seven Effects of Rotation


7.1 Introduction


7.2 The Rossby Adjustment Problem


7.3 The Transients


7.4 Applicability to the Rotating Earth


7.5 The Rossby Radius of Deformation


7.6 The Geostrophic Balance


7.7 Relative Geostrophic Currents: The Thermal Wind


7.8 Available Potential Energy


7.9 Circulation and Vorticity


7.10 Conservation of Potential Vorticity for a Shallow Homogeneous Layer


7.11 Circulation in a Stratified Fluid and Ertel's Potential Vorticity


7.12 Perturbation Forms of the Vorticity Equations in a Uniformly Rotating Fluid


7.13 Initialization of Fields for Numerical Prediction Schemes

Chapter Eight Gravity Waves in a Rotating Fluid


8.1 Introduction


8.2 Effect of Rotation on Surface Gravity Waves: Poincaré Waves


8.3 Dispersion Properties and Energetics of Poincaré Waves


8.4 Vertically Propagating Internal Waves in a Rotating Fluid


8.5 Polarization Relations


8.6 Energetics


8.7 Waves Generated at a Horizontal Boundary


8.8 Mountain Waves


8.9 Effects of Variation of Properties with Height


8.10 Finite-Amplitude Topographic Effects


8.11 Dissipative Effects in the Upper Atmosphere


8.12 The Liouville-Green or WKBJ Approximation


8.13 Wave Interactions


8.14 The Internal Wave Spectrum in the Ocean


8.15 Wave Transport and Effects on the Mean Flow


8.16 Quasi-geostrophic Flow (/Plane): The Isallobaric Wind

Chapter Nine Forced Motion


9.1 Introduction


9.2 Forcing Due to Surface Stress: Ekman Transport


9.3 Wind-Generated Inertial Oscillations in the Ocean Mixed Layer


9.4 Ekman Pumping


9.5 Bottom Friction: Velocity Structure of the Boundary Layer


9.6 The Laminar Ekman Layer


9.7 The Nocturnal Jet


9.8 Tide-Producing Forces


9.9 Effect of Atmospheric Pressure Variations and Wind on Barotropic Motion in the Sea: The Forced Shallow-Water Equation


9.10 Baroclinic Response of the Ocean to Wind Forcing: Use of Normal Modes


9.11 Response of the Ocean to a Moving Storm or Hurricane


9.12 Spin-Down by Bottom Friction


9.13 Buoyancy Forcing


9.14 Response to Stationary Forcing: A Barotropic Example


9.15 A Forced Baroclinic Vortex


9.16 Equilibration through Dissipative Effects

Chapter Ten Effects of Side Boundaries


10.1 Introduction


10.2 Effects of Rotation on Seiches and Tides in Narrow Channels and Gulfs


10.3 Poincaré Waves in a Uniform Channel of Arbitrary Width


10.4 Kelvin Waves


10.5 The Full Set of Modes for an Infinite Channel of Uniform Width


10.6 End Effects: Seiches and Tides in a Gulf That Is Not Narrow


10.7 Adjustment to Equilibrium in a Channel


10.8 Tides


10.9 Storm Surges on an Open Coastline : The Local Solution


10.10 Surges Moving along the Coast: Forced Kelvin Waves


10.11 Coastal Upwelling


10.12 Continental Shelf Waves


10.13 Coastally Trapped Waves


10.14 Eastern Boundary Currents

Chapter Eleven The Tropics


11.1 Introduction


11.2 Effects of Earth's Curvature: Shallow-Water Equations on the Sphere


11.3 Potential Vorticity for a Shallow Homogeneous Layer


11.4 The Equatorial Beta Plane


11.5 The Equatorial Kelvin Wave


11.6 Other Equatorially Trapped Waves


11.7 The Equatorial Waveguide: Gravity Waves


11.8 Planetary Waves and Quasi-geostrophic Motion


11.9 Baroclinic Motion near the Equator


11.10 Vertically Propagating Equatorial Waves


11.11 Adjustment under Gravity near the Equator


11.12 Transient Forced Motion


11.13 Potential Vorticity for Baroclinic Motion: The Steady Limit


11.14 Steady Forced Motion


11.15 The Tropical Circulation of the Atmosphere


11.16 Tropical Ocean Currents

Chapter Twelve Mid-latitudes


12.1 Introduction


12.2 The Mid-latitude Beta Plane


12.3 Planetary Waves


12.4 Spin-Up of the Ocean by an Applied Wind Stress


12.5 Steady Ocean Circulation


12.6 Western Boundary Currents


12.7 Vertical Propagation of Planetary Waves in a Medium at Rest


12.8 Nonlinear Quasi-geostrophic Flow in Three Dimensions


12.9 Small Disturbances on a Zonal Flow Varying with Latitude and Height


12.10 Deductions about Vertical Motion from the Quasi-geostrophic Equations

Chapter Thirteen Instabilities, Fronts, and the General Circulation


13.1 Introduction


13.2 Free Waves in the Presence of a Horizontal Temperature Gradient


13.3 Baroclinic Instability: The Eady Problem


13.4 Baroclinic Instability : The Charney Problem


13.5 Necessary Conditions for Instability


13.6 Barotropic Instability


13.7 Eddies in the Ocean


13.8 Fronts


13.9 The Life Cycle of a Baroclinic Disturbance


13.10 General Circulation of the Atmosphere

Appendix One Units and Their SI Equivalents

Appendix Two Useful Values

Appendix Three Properties of Seawater

A3.1 The Equation of State

A3.2 Other Quantities Related to Density

A3.3 Expansion Coefficients

A3.4 Specific Heat

A3.5 Potential Temperature

A3.6 Speed of Sound

A3.7 Freezing Point of Seawater

Appendix Four Properties of Moist Air

A4.1 Methods of Specifying Moisture Content

A4.2 Saturation Vapor Pressure

A4.3 Further Quantities Related to Moisture Content

A4.4 Latent Heats

A4.5 Lapse Rates

Appendix Five A List of Atlases and Data Sources

References

Index