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Antioxidants Effects in Health

The Bright and the Dark Side

1st Edition - June 16, 2022

Editors: Seyed Mohammad Nabavi, Ana Sanches Silva

Paperback ISBN:

9 7 8 - 0 - 1 2 - 8 1 9 0 9 6 - 8

eBook ISBN:

9 7 8 - 0 - 1 2 - 8 1 9 0 9 7 - 5

Antioxidants Effects in Health: The Bright and the Dark Side examines the role that antioxidants play in a variety of health and disease situations. The book discusses… Read more

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Antioxidants Effects in Health: The Bright and the Dark Side examines the role that antioxidants play in a variety of health and disease situations. The book discusses antioxidants’ historical evolution, their oxidative stress, and contains a detailed approach of 1) endogenous antioxidants, including endogenous sources, mechanisms of action, beneficial and detrimental effects on health, in vitro evidence, animal studies and clinical studies; 2) synthetic antioxidants, including sources, chemistry, bioavailability, legal status, mechanisms of action, beneficial and detrimental effects on health, in vitro evidence, animal studies and clinical studies; and 3) natural antioxidants, including sources, chemistry, bioavailability, mechanisms of action, possible prooxidant activity; beneficial and detrimental effects on health, in vitro evidence, animal studies and clinical studies. Throughout the boo, the relationship of antioxidants with different beneficial and detrimental effects are examined, and the current controversies and future perspectives are addressed and explored. Antioxidants Effects in Health: The Bright and the Dark Side evaluates the current scientific evidence on antioxidant topics, focusing on endogenous antioxidants, naturally occurring antioxidants and synthetic antioxidants. It will be a helpful resource for pharmaceutical scientists, health professionals, those studying natural chemistry, phytochemistry, pharmacognosy, natural product synthesis, and experts in formulation of herbal and natural pharmaceuticals.

Cover Image
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
Contributors
About the editors
Preface
Part 1 Introduction
Chapter 1.1 Evolution of antioxidants over times (including current global market and trend)
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 Antioxidants in early human use
1.1.3 Types of antioxidants and their mode of action
1.1.4 Current research focus and trends
1.1.5 Current global market
1.1.6 Economic burden and cost benefit of antioxidants
1.1.7 Adverse effect of antioxidants
Conclusion
Conflict of interest
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 1.2 The oxidative stress: Causes, free radicals, targets, mechanisms, affected organs, effects, indicators
1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 Oxidative stress
1.2.3 Targets of free radicals
1.2.4 Free radicals and their damaging effect on organs
1.2.5 Biomarkers
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 1.3 Food auto-oxidation: An overview
1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Mechanism of auto-oxidation
1.3.3 Methods for the determination of food auto-oxidation
1.3.4 Factors influencing auto-oxidation
1.3.5 Toxic effects of food auto-oxidation
1.3.6 Prevention of food auto-oxidation
1.3.7 Antioxidants used in the food industry
1.3.8 Effect of antioxidants on human health
1.3.9 Regulatory guidelines/aspects
1.3.10 Current challenges
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
References
Part 2 Endogenous antioxidants
Chapter 2.1 Bilirubin
2.1.1 Origin and structure
2.1.2 Bilirubin synthesis
2.1.3 Bilirubin metabolism and excretion
2.1.4 Bilirubin as an antioxidant
2.1.5 Bilirubin and its potential detrimental effects
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2.2 Catalase
2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Endogenous and exogenous sources
2.2.3 Catalase: Importance, benefits, and activity
2.2.4 Impact of physiological, behavioral and environmental factors on catalase activity
2.2.5 Role of catalase as a biomarker for oxidative stress
2.2.6 Mechanism of action of catalase
2.2.7 In vitro and in vivo studies
2.2.8 Clinical Study
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2.3 Coenzyme Q: An endogenous antioxidant
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Mechanism of action of coenzyme Q10
2.3.3 Coenzyme Q10 as pro-oxidant
2.3.4 Beneficial effects
2.3.5 In-vitro and in-vivo studies
Conclusion
Conflict of interest
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 2.4 Ferritin
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Serum ferritin level as a diagnostic biomarker
2.4.3 Role of ferritin in Fe homeostasis
2.4.4 Ferritin and oxidative stress
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2.5 Glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase
2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 Mechanism of action
2.5.3 Beneficial effects of glucose-6-phosphate on health
2.5.4 Detrimental effects of glucose-6-phosphate on health
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2.6 Melatonin
2.6.1 Endogenous sources
2.6.2 Mechanisms of action
2.6.3 Beneficial effects of melatonin on health
2.6.4 Effects of melatonin on diseases
Conclusion/future prospects
References
Chapter 2.7 Superoxide dismutase
2.7.1 Introduction
2.7.2 Classifications of different types of superoxide dismutase
2.7.3 Mechanism of action
2.7.4 Beneficial roles of superoxide dismutases
2.7.5 Superoxide dismutases and diseases
2.7.6 Superoxide dismutase as a therapeutic target against various diseases
2.7.7 Adverse effects of superoxide dismutase
2.7.8 Optimum dose, route of administration, and limitations of therapeutic use of superoxide dismutase
Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 2.8 Uric acid
2.8.1 Introduction
2.8.2 Antioxidant effect of uric acid
2.8.3 Pro-oxidant activity of uric acid
2.8.4 Beneficial effects of uric acid
2.8.5 Increasing the bioavailability of uric acid
2.8.6 Detrimental effects of uric acid
Conclusion
References
Part 3 Synthetic antioxidants: bright and the dark side
Chapter 3.1 Ascorbyl palmitate
3.1.1 Chemistry
3.1.2 Synthesis
3.1.3 Legal status
3.1.4 Mechanism of action
3.1.5 Effects on health
Conclusions
Authors’ contribution
References
Chapter 3.2 Butylated hydroxyanisole
3.2.1 Chemistry
3.2.2 Synthesis
3.2.3 Legal status
3.2.4 Mechanisms of action
3.2.5 Effects on health
Conclusions
Authors’ contribution
References
Chapter 3.3 Butylated hydroxytoluene
3.3.1 Chemistry
3.3.2 Synthesis
3.3.3 Legal status
3.3.4 Mechanisms of action
3.3.5 Effects on health
Conclusions
Authors’ contribution
References
Chapter 3.4 Erythorbic acid (D-ascorbic acid)
3.4.1 Chemistry
3.4.2 Synthesis
3.4.3 Legal status
3.4.4 Mechanisms of action
3.4.5 Effects on health
Conclusions
Authors’ contribution
References
Chapter 3.5 Nordihydroguaiaretic acid
3.5.1 Chemistry
3.5.2 Synthesis
3.5.3 Legal status
3.5.4 Mechanisms of action
3.5.5 Effects on health
Conclusions
Authors’ contribution
References
Chapter 3.6 Octyl gallate
3.6.1 Chemistry
3.6.2 Synthesis
3.6.3 Legal status
3.6.4 Mechanisms of action
3.6.5 Effects on health
Conclusions
Authors’ contribution
References
Chapter 3.7 Propyl gallate
3.7.1 Chemistry
3.7.2 Synthesis
3.7.3 Legal status
3.7.4 Mechanisms of action
3.7.5 Effects on health
Conclusions
Authors’ contribution
References
Chapter 3.8 Tert-butylhydroquinone
3.8.1 Chemistry
3.8.2 Synthesis
3.8.3 Legal status
3.8.4 Mechanisms of action
3.8.5 Effects on health
Conclusions
Authors’ contribution
References
Part 4 Natural occurring antioxidants: bright and the dark side
Chapter 4.1 Amino acid: Essential builiding blocks for Human body
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Sources
4.1.3 Chemistry
4.1.4 Bioavailability
4.1.5 Mechanisms of action
4.1.6 Pro-oxidant activity
4.1.7 Beneficial and detrimental effects on health
4.1.8 In-vitro evidence of amino acids
4.1.9 Clinical studies
4.1.10 Effect of antioxidants on the gastrointestinal tract
Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 4.10 Lignans
4.10.1 Background
4.10.2 Sources of lignans
4.10.3 Chemistry
4.10.4 Bioavailability
4.10.5 Antioxidant activity of (neo)lignans and mechanism of action
4.10.6 Plausible pro-oxidant activity of lignans
4.10.7 Beneficial effects of lignans on health
4.10.8 In-vitro evidences of antioxidant activity of (neo)lignans
4.10.9 Animal and clinical studies
4.10.10 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 4.11 Organosulfur compounds (allyl sulfide, indoles)
4.11.1 Introduction
4.11.2 Sources, chemical structure, and bioavailability of organosulfur compounds
4.11.3 Mechanisms of action
4.11.4 Beneficial and detrimental effects on health
4.11.5 Detrimental effects
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.12 Phenolic acids
4.12.1 Introduction
4.12.2 Antioxidant activity of phenolic acids
4.12.3 Pro-oxidant activity of phenolic acids
4.12.4 Bioavailability and metabolism of phenolic acids
Conclusions
References
Chapter 4.13 Phytic acid: As a natural antioxidant
4.13.1 Introduction
4.13.2 Sources of phytic acid
4.13.3 Mechanism of action of phytic acid as an antioxidant
4.13.4 Possible pro-oxidant activity
4.13.5 Role of phytic acid as antioxidant in health and disease
4.13.6 In-vivo studies
4.13.7 In-vitro studies
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.14 Protein hydrolysates
4.14.1 Introduction
4.14.2 Sources, chemistry, and bioavailability
4.14.3 Mechanism of protein hydrolysates as antioxidants
4.14.4 Degree of hydrolysis on protein hydrolysates activity
4.14.5 Therapeutic action of protein hydrolysates
4.14.6 In vitro test for the appraisal of antioxidant potential of protein hydrolysates
4.14.7 An appraisal of protein hydrolysates activity in vivo
4.14.8 An appraisal of protein hydrolysates activity in human trial
4.14.9 Safety, regulation, and application
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.15 Selenium
4.15.1 Introduction
4.15.2 Selenium and its role as an antioxidant
4.15.3 Evidence of beneficial effects of selenium from in-vitro and preclinical studies
4.15.4 Evidence of beneficial effect of selenium from clinical studies
4.15.5 Dark side of selenium: Adverse and toxic effects
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.16 Sterols: benificial or detrimental for human helath
4.16.1 Sterols and their role as antioxidants
4.16.2 Bright side of sterols
4.16.3 Dark side of sterols: Adverse effects and toxicity
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.17 Tartaric acid
4.17.1 Introduction
4.17.2 Classification of natural antioxidants
4.17.3 Source of tartaric acid
4.17.4 Pharmacological activity of tartaric acid
4.17.5 Toxicity studies of tartaric acid
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.18 Turmeric
4.18.1 Introduction
4.18.2 Etymology
4.18.3 Systematics
4.18.4 Distribution
4.18.5 Botanical description
4.18.6 Turmeric preparations
4.18.7 Uses as dye
4.18.8 Ethnobotany
4.18.9 Turmeric metabolites
4.18.10 Nutraceutical and medicinal uses
4.18.11 Uses as antioxidant
Conclusions
References
Chapter 4.19 Uric acid
4.19.1 Introduction
4.19.2 Uric acid as an antioxidant
4.19.3 Risk factors associated with the high concentration of uric acid
4.19.4 Experimental studies conducted to elucidate the risk of uric acid
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.2 Carnosine
4.2.1 Introduction
4.2.2 Possible pro-oxidant activity
4.2.3 Beneficial effects of carnosine on health
4.2.4 Application of carnosine
4.2.5 Studies demonstrating antioxidative properties of carnosine
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.20 Vanillin
4.20.1 Introduction
4.20.2 In-vitro antioxidant activity of vanillin
4.20.3 In-vivo antioxidant activity of vanillin
4.20.4 Prooxidant activity of vanillin
4.20.5 Vanillin formulations and their antioxidant activities
4.20.6 Evaluation of vanillin in terms of human health
4.20.7 Acute and repeated dose toxicity
4.20.8 Bioavailability
4.20.9 Clinical trials
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.21 Vitamin A
4.21.1 Introduction
4.21.2 Vitamin A: Its functions and chemistry
4.21.3 Antioxidant effect of vitamin A
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.22 Vitamin C
4.22.1 Introduction
4.22.2 History
4.22.3 Sources and daily allowance of vitamin C
4.22.4 Chemical structure and biochemistry of vitamin C
4.22.5 Biosynthesis of vitamin C in the plants and animals
4.22.6 Beneficial effects of vitamin C on health
4.22.7 Anticancer activity of ascorbic acid
4.22.8 Antioxidant activity of vitamin C
4.22.9 Detrimental effects of ascorbic acid on health
4.22.10 Pro-oxidant activity of ascorbic acid
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.23 Vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols) (natural-occurring antioxidant; bright and dark side)
4.23.1 Introduction
4.23.2 Sources
4.23.3 Chemistry
4.23.4 Absorption and metabolism
4.23.5 Bioavailability
4.23.6 Mechanism of action
4.23.7 Possible pro-oxidant activity
4.23.8 Beneficial effects of vitamin E on health
4.23.9 Side effects/unwanted of vitamin E
4.23.10 In-vitro and in-vivo studies on vitamin E
4.23.11 Clinical trial studies
Conclusions
References
Chapter 4.24 Vitamin K
4.24.1 Introduction
4.24.2 General informations about vitamin K
4.24.3 Cellular metabolism of vitamin K
4.24.4 Vitamin K dependent proteins and their functions
4.24.5 Reported in vivo, in vitro, and clinical effect of vitamin K in the mammalian system
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.25 Zinc
4.25.1 Sources
4.25.2 Chemistry
4.25.3 Bioavailability of zinc
4.25.4 Zinc as an antioxidant
4.25.5 Beneficial and detrimental effects on health
4.25.6 Zinc supplementation in humans
4.25.7 In-vitro studies in human cells
4.25.8 Animal studies and clinical studies
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.3 Carnosol
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Source and chemistry
4.3.3 Bioavailability and toxicity
4.3.4 Antioxidant and pro-oxidant activities
4.3.5 Pharmacological effects and underlying mechanisms
4.3.6 Clinical studies
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 4.4 Carotenoids (Xanthophylls and Carotenes)
4.4.1 Carotenoids
4.4.2 Chemical composition
4.4.3 Sources of carotenoids
4.4.4 Carotenoids accumulation and bioavailability
4.4.5 Beneficial and detrimental effects of carotenoids on health
4.4.6 Toxicity of carotenoids
4.4.7 In-vitro evidence, animal studies, and clinical studies of carotenoids
Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 4.5 Citric acid, antioxidant effects in health
4.5.1 Introduction
4.5.2 Chemistry
4.5.3 Bioavailability
4.5.4 Mechanisms of action
4.5.5 Possible proxidant activity
4.5.6 Safety profile or toxicity studies
4.5.7 Beneficial and detrimental effects on health
4.5.8 Animal studies and clinical studies
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4.6 Antioxidant activity of coenzyme-Q; bright and dark side
4.6.1 Introduction
4.6.2 Animal studies
4.6.3 Clinical studies
4.6.4 Side effects
4.6.5 Safety profile
Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 4.7 Curcumin
4.7.1 Introduction
4.7.2 Antioxidant activities of curcumin
4.7.3 Bioavailability of curcumin
4.7.4 The pro-oxidant activity of curcumin
4.7.5 Beneficial and detrimental effects of curcumin in human health
Conclusions
References
Chapter 4.8 Flavonoids
4.8.1 Introduction
4.8.2 Chemistry
4.8.3 Physical and chemical properties
4.8.4 Bioavailability
4.8.5 Stability
4.8.6 Antioxidant activity of flavonoids
4.8.7 Mechanisms of bioactivities in cell levels
4.8.8 Pharmacology in animal studies
4.8.9 Clinical studies
4.8.10 Future perspectives
References
Chapter 4.9 Lecithin
4.9.1 Introduction
4.9.2 Sources of lecithin
4.9.3 Chemistry of lecithin
4.9.4 Beneficial and detrimental effects on health
4.9.5 The pro-oxidant activity
4.9.6 In-vitro studies
4.9.7 Animal studies
4.9.8 Mechanism of action
4.9.9 Clinical trials
4.9.10 Bioavailability
Conclusion
References
Part 5 Antioxidants and diseases: beneficial and detrimental effects
Chapter 5.1 Beneficial and detrimental effects of antioxidants in cancer
5.1.1 Introduction
5.1.2 Antioxidants in cancer development and treatment
5.1.3 Antioxidant foods and cancer prevention
5.1.4 Antioxidants; clinical trials in cancer prevention and treatment
5.1.5 Common dietary antioxidants in cancer prevention
5.1.6 Antioxidants for cancer management; cure or threat
5.1.7 Antioxidants in combination therapy in combating cancer
Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 5.10 Antioxidants and liver diseases
5.10.1 Introduction
5.10.2 Antioxidants in liver diseases
5.10.3 Flavonoids
5.10.4 Phenolic compounds
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5.2 Antioxidants and cardiovascular diseases
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Oxidative stress and its role in cardiovascular disease: a brief idea
5.2.3 Antioxidants and cardiovascular diseases
5.2.4 Polyphenols
Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 5.3 Antioxidants and cataracts/age-related macular degeneration
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Cataract, a global problem
5.3.3 Pathophysiology of cataract
5.3.4 Role of antioxidants in cataract
Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 5.4 Antioxidants and cognitive decline in elderly
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Oxidative stress and brain aging
5.4.3 Effects of antioxidants on cognitive decline
Conclusion
Abbreviations:
References
Chapter 5.5 Antioxidant and dentistry
5.5.1 Introduction
5.5.2 Enzymes as antioxidant
5.5.3 Antioxidants and dental caries (antioxidants have a more preventive than a curative effect on following oral problems)
5.5.4 Periodontology
5.5.5 Clinical studies
5.5.6 Oral submucous fibrosis
5.5.7 Repeal of oral leukoplakia with antioxidants
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5.6 Antioxidants and gastric lesions
5.6.1 Introduction
5.6.2 Antioxidant systems
5.6.3 Gastric lesions
5.6.4 Gastroprotective potential of natural antioxidants: in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies
5.6.5 Clinical studies on phytochemicals and their effect on gastric lesions
5.6.6 Gastroprotective potential from herbs and medicinal plants
5.6.7 Antioxidants in gastric cancer
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5.7 Antioxidants and immune functions
5.7.1 Introduction
5.7.2 Origin and role of ROS
5.7.3 Oxidative stress and endogenous antioxidative systems
5.7.4 Effect of antioxidants on cell-mediated immunity
5.7.5 Effect of antioxidants on humoral immunity
5.7.6 Effect of antioxidants on hypersensitivity and inflammation
5.7.7 Effect of dietary or supplemented antioxidants on age-related tumor immunity
5.7.8 Antioxidants shield immune cells from environmental damage
5.7.9 Effects of exogenous or dietary antioxidants against ROS/RNS generated in an immune response
5.7.10 Role of antioxidants in combating diseases
5.7.11 Role of antioxidants on autoimmunity and oxidative stress
5.7.12 Possibility of exerting harmful or no effects of antioxidants on immune system
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5.8 Antioxidants and infertility
5.8.1 Introduction
5.8.2 Infertility
5.8.3 Male infertility
5.8.4 Female infertility
5.8.5 Role of oxidative stress in male infertility
5.8.6 Role of oxidative stress in female infertility
5.8.7 Role of antioxidant in infertility
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5.9 Antioxidants and kidney diseases
5.9.1 Introduction
5.9.2 Kidney diseases
5.9.3 Natural antioxidants and kidney diseases
5.9.4 Drugs or isolated natural antioxidant potential products in kidney diseases
Conclusion
References
Part 6 Actual and future perspectives on antioxidants
Chapter 6.1 Antioxidants effects in health: The bright and the dark sides
6.1.1 Introduction
6.1.2 Oxidative stress: sources and the pathophysiology
6.1.3 Antioxidants: sources and related mechanisms
6.1.4 The interplay of antioxidants and pro-oxidants
6.1.5 Resilience pathways
6.1.6 The signaling pathways of antioxidants
6.1.7 Antioxidant therapy: novel approaches
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6.2 Food and food supplement antioxidants: Targets in human antioxidant system and effects on the production of endogenous antioxidants
6.2.1 Briefly about healthy nutrition
6.2.2 Dietary supplements
6.2.3 Functional foods
6.2.4 Why should antioxidant supplementation be considered?
6.2.5 Some dietary antioxidants that affect endogenous antioxidant systems
6.2.6 Antioxidants to fight diseases
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6.3 Antioxidants effects in health: Concluding remarks and future perspectives
6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Antioxidants versus ROS dichotomy
6.3.3 Effectiveness of antioxidants
6.3.4 Dietary sources of antioxidants
6.3.5 Future perspectives
Acknowledgment
References
Index