Analysis, Removal, Effects and Risk of Pharmaceuticals in the Water Cycle

Series Page

Contributors to Volume 62

Series Editor's Preface

Preface

Chapter 1. General Introduction on Pharmaceuticals

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 The Pharmaceutical Industry

3 Drug Discovery and Drug Development

4 Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics

5 Drug Metabolism

6 Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: The Manufacturers' View

References

Chapter 2. Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Sources and Their Management

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 What Do We Mean with the Term “Drug”? A Vernacular of Terminology

3 How Large is the Universe of Drug Entities and Why Should It Matter?

4 Understanding the Sources from Where Medications Can Become Environmental Contaminants

5 Factors That Obscure or Confound the Origin of APIs or Source Apportionment

6 Source as a Variable Influencing Exposure and Entry to the Environment

7 Key Questions Related to Source and the Life Cycle of Drugs

8 The “Matthew Effect”: A Major Potential Obstacle to a Comprehensive Understanding of Drugs as Environmental Contaminants

9 Sustainability, Stewardship, and Pollution Prevention for Minimizing the Environmental Impact of APIs

10 Final Thought: Treating the Patient and the Environment Together as One

References

Chapter 3. Prioritization: Selection of Environmentally Occurring Pharmaceuticals to Be Monitored

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 General Principles for Prioritization of Chemical Compounds

3 Pharmaceuticals: Environmental Risk Assessment

4 Summary of Some Relevant Prioritization Methods: Exposure-, Hazard-, and Risk-Based Schemes

5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 4. Analysis of Pharmaceuticals in Drinking Water, Groundwater, Surface Water, and Wastewater

Abstract

1 Introduction: Pharmaceuticals in Waters

2 Analytical Techniques

3 Target Analysis of Pharmaceuticals: Low-Level Detection and Case Studies

4 Non-target Analysis of Pharmaceuticals

5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 5. Analysis of PhACs in Solid Environmental Samples (Soil, Sediment, and Sludge)

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Transport and Fate of PhACs in Solid Matrices

3 Occurrence of PhACs in Solid Samples

4 Sample Preparation

5 Sample Cleanup and Concentration

6 Quantitative Analytic Determination

7 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 6. Analysis of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Biota

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Sample Preparation

3 Sample Separation and Detection

4 Matrix Effects

5 Environmental Occurrence

6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 7. Application of Bioassays/Biosensors for the Analysis of Pharmaceuticals in Environmental Samples

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Bioassays

3 Biochemical Assays

4 Biosensors

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 8. Removal of Pharmaceuticals by Conventional Wastewater Treatment Plants

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Chapter Framework

3 Conventional Wastewater Treatments

4 Pharmaceutical Compounds Included in the Study

5 Occurrence in the Influent and in the Effluent

6 Occurrence in Sewage Sludge

7 PhC Removal by Conventional WWTPs

8 Properties Predicting Removal in CAS

9 Operational Factors Affecting PhC Removal

10 Mass Load Discharged by CAS Systems

11 Environmental Risk of Residual PhCs in Treated Effluent and Sludge

12 Modeling

13 CAS: Treatment of Pharmaceutical Industry Wastewaters

14 Conclusions

References

Chapter 9. Removal of Pharmaceuticals by Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) Technology

Abstract

1 Innovative Technologies for Emerging Issues

2 MBRs for the Elimination of Pharmaceuticals: 10 Years of Research

3 Efficiency of MBRs to Remove Pharmaceuticals from Wastewater

4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 10. Removal of Pharmaceuticals by Ultrafiltration (UF), Nanofiltration (NF), and Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Abstract

1 Introduction to the Membrane Pressure Processes

2 Removal of Pharmaceuticals by UF

3 Removal of Pharmaceuticals by NF and RO

4 Influences on Pharmaceuticals Rejection by NF and RO

5 Hybrid Systems with UF, NF, and RO

References

Chapter 11. Removal of Pharmaceuticals from Environmentally Relevant Matrices by Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs)

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Assessment of AOPs Performance for Pharmaceutical Removal

3 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 12. Removal of Pharmaceutical Compounds from Wastewater and Surface Water by Natural Treatments

Abstract

Abbreviations

1 Introduction

2 Constructed Wetlands

3 Ponds

4 Buffer Strips

5 Natural and Restored Wetlands

6 Future Trends

7 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 13. Removal of Pharmaceuticals by Bank Filtration and Artificial Recharge and Recovery

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Factors Influencing the Behavior of Pharmaceuticals in Bank Filtration and Artificial Recharge and Recovery

3 Attenuation of Pharmaceuticals During Bank Filtration and Artificial Recharge and Recovery

4 Hybridization of Bank Filtration and Artificial Recharge and Recovery in Multibarrier Treatment

5 Research Needs

6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 14. Fate and Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic Environment (Surface Water and Sediment)

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Fate in the Aquatic Environment

3 Occurrence in the Aquatic Environment

4 Summary

References

Chapter 15. Fate and Occurrence of PhACs in the Terrestrial Environment

Abstract

Abbreviations

1 Introduction

2 Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals in Soils

3 Fate of Pharmaceuticals in Agricultural Soils

4 Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals in Agricultural Soils

5 Environmental Risks

6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 16. Methods for Elucidation of Transformation Pathways: Identification of Intermediate Products, Chiral, and Isotope-Ratio Mass Spectrometry Analysis

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Advances in Separation and Detection Techniques for Evaluation of the Degradability of Pharmaceutical Compounds

3 Determination of TPs in the Aquatic Environment for Evaluation of the Degradability

4 Changes in the Enantiomeric Fraction

5 Isotopic Fraction of Pharmaceuticals in the Environment

6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 17. Deciphering Emerging Toxicological Effects of Pharmaceuticals on Aquatic Organisms by Using Daphnia magna and Danio rerio as Model Organisms

Abstract

Abbreviations

1 Introduction

2 Deciphering Adverse Effects of Pharmaceuticals in Nonvertebrate Species

3 Analysis of the Toxicity of Pharmaceuticals in Aquatic Vertebrate Species by Using the Zebrafish Model

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 18. The Effect of PhACs on Biological Communities in Rivers: Field Studies

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Ecology and Ecotoxicology of Biological Communities in Rivers

3 Effects on Biological Communities

4 The Llobregat River Basin: A Relevant Study Case

References

Chapter 19. Antibiotic Resistance in the Aquatic Environment

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Acquisition of ARGs in Aquatic Ecosystems and Development of Antibiotic Resistance

3 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 20. Reporting and Evaluating Ecotoxicity Data for Environmental Risk Assessment: How Can Current Practices Be Improved?

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Environmental Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals: The EMA Rules

3 Evaluation of Test Data: The Scientific Basis of Risk Assessment

4 Standard and Nonstandard Test Protocols

5 Regulators Promote the Use of Standard Tests (and Good Laboratory Practice)

6 Available Methods to Promote a Structured Approach to Test Data Evaluation

7 Can We Improve the Process for Data Evaluation?

8 Can We Improve Reporting of Data?

9 Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments and Competing Interests

References

Chapter 21. Conclusions and Future Research Needs

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Chemical Analysis

3 Wastewater Treatment

4 Occurrence Studies

5 Fate and Behavior

6 Toxicity and Effects on Freshwater Ecosystems

References

Index