American Trypanosomiasis Chagas Disease

1. History of the discovery of the American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease)

• Abstract
• A beautiful history of life and work
• The history of a significant discovery
• Salvador Mazza: marked the history of the knowledge of his disease
• Cecilio Romanha: his contribution to the identification of the disease
• First evidence of Trypanosomiasis Americana (Chagas disease) in various countries of Latin America
• Chagas disease 100 years after the discovery
• Acknowledgments
• References

2. Chagas disease in pre-Colombian civilizations

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Genetic variation
• Archeology
• Biochemistry (Bioarcheology)
• The parasite transmission cycle
• Insect vectors associated with the human habitats
• Historical overview
• Pre-Hispanic settlements in areas of transmission of T. cruzi
• Oral infection by T. cruzi
• Evidence of human T. cruzi infection in pre-Colombian civilizations
• References

3. Social and medical aspects on Chagas disease management and control

• Abstract
• Introduction
• General frame and costs of HCD
• The medical burden of HCD in endemic and nonendemic areas
• The particular question of specific treatment of Chagas disease
• Some social remarks concerning the control of HCD
• Final remarks
• Abbreviations
• References

4. Current epidemiological trends of Chagas disease in Latin America and future challenges: epidemiology, surveillance, and health policies

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Modes of transmission
• Methods and measurement of epidemiological trends in the continent from 1980 to 2006
• Feasibility of interruption of transmission
• Current control programs
• Economic impact
• Epidemiological impact in the region
• Epidemiological impact
• Future challenges
• References

5. Geographical distribution of Chagas disease

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Vector phylogeography and ecology
• Parasite phylogeography and ecology
• Epidemiological implications of parasite distributions
• Vector–parasite–host interactions and implications for Chagas disease distribution
• Assessment of regions affected by Chagas disease
• Oceania and Asia
• Chagas disease in Mexico and Central America
• Chagas disease in the Amazon region
• Chagas disease in the Andean region
• Chagas disease in the Southern Cone countries
• References

6. Classification and systematics of the Triatominae

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Subfamily: Triatominae
• Tribes and genera
• Concept of species
• Conclusions
• A consensual approach to the species
• Acknowledgment
• References

7. Biology of Triatominae

• Abstract
• Introduction
• General biology of vectors
• Insight into the biology and ecology of Triatominae in the silvatic environment
• Vectorial capacity and domesticity
• Vector control strategy
• Acknowledgments
• Glossary
• References

8. Population genetics of Triatominae

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Vector population structure directs Chagas disease epidemiology and control
• Genetic variation, population structure, and implications for vector control
• Genetic variation and population structure of T. infestans, T. dimidiata, R. prolixus and other significant vectors of human Chagas disease
• Perspective and future directions
• Acknowledgments
• References

9. Geographic distribution of Triatominae vectors in America

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Limitation of sampling methods to estimate the geographic distribution of Triatominae
• Pattern of species richness in the New World Triatominae
• Distribution of Triatominae in the Americas
• Environmental variables as indicators of Triatominae geographic distribution
• Global warming and expansion of geographic range of T. infestans
• Glossary
• References

10. Control strategies against Triatominae

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Elimination of domestic populations of Triatominae
• Multinational initiatives
• The beginning of the end?
• Criteria for stratification of vector control priorities
• Insecticide resistance
• New technologies for vector control
• The political commitment
• Acknowledgments
• References

11. Ecological aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi: Wild hosts and reservoirs

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Order Didelphimorphia
• Superorder Xenarthra
• Order Rodentia
• Order Primata
• Order Carnivora
• Order Chiroptera
• Order Artiodactyla
• References

12. Trypanosoma cruzi enzootic cycle: General aspects, domestic and synanthropic hosts and reservoirs

• Abstract
• The complex Trypanosoma cruzi transmission cycle
• What are the Trypanosoma cruzi reservoirs?
• Importance of wild and synanthropic mammals in public health—Brazil
• Domestic mammalian species
• Domestic nonmammalian species
• Importance of infected domestic mammals on public health in Brazil
• Mixed infection
• References

13. Veterinary aspects

• Abstract
• Introduction
• The various ways of infection of animals (and humans)
• The problem of diagnosis in animals
• Natural infections in domestic animals and livestock
• Experimental infections in livestock
• New cycles establish in the United States
• Conclusions
• References

14. Experimental studies of Chagas disease in animal models

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Animal species used as experimental model in Chagas disease
• Conclusions
• References

15. Classification and phylogeny of Trypanosoma cruzi

• Abstract
• Application of molecular phylogenetics to trypanosome taxonomy and understanding evolution
• Origin of trypanosomes and the relationship between T. cruzi and T. brucei
• Relationships within the genus Trypanosoma
• Molecular phylogenetics and traditional taxonomy of mammalian trypanosomes
• The main groups of trypanosomes recognized in molecular phylogenetic analyses
• The T. cruzi clade
• The origin of the T. cruzi clade
• Outlook
• Glossary
• References

16. Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi and biological diversity

• Abstract
• Taxonomy
• Introduction
• Evolutionary stages
• Biological cycle
• Biology in the vertebrate host
• Biology in the invertebrate host
• Biological diversity of T. cruzi
• Maintaining T. cruzi in the laboratory
• Glossary
• References

17. Biochemistry of Trypanosoma cruzi

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Chemotherapy of Chagas disease
• Metabolic pathways in T. cruzi that could provide targets for drugs against Chagas disease
• Redox metabolism
• Acidocalcisome biochemistry and osmoregulation
• Conclusion
• Acknowledgments
• References

18. Ultrastructure of Trypanosoma cruzi and its interaction with host cells

• Abstract
• Structural organization of Trypanosoma cruzi
• The nucleus
• The kinetoplast–mitochondrion complex
• The glycosome
• The acidocalcisome
• The contractile vacuole
• The cytoskeleton
• The flagellum
• The flagellar pocket
• The secretory pathway
• The endocytic pathway
• Other cytoplasmic structures
• Acknowledgments
• References

19. Genetics of Trypanosoma cruzi

• Abstract
• Nuclear genome
  • Sequencing of the CL Brener reference strain—a historical perspective
  • Sequencing strategy, genome organization, and content
  • Comparative genome sequencing and analyses
  • Transcription mechanisms and genetic expression in T. cruzi
  • References
• Kinetoplast genome
  • Introduction
  • kDNA organization
  • Replication model of kDNA
  • Maxicircles and minicircles: kDNA coding
  • Determination of T. cruzi lineages analyzing minicircles DNA sequences
  • References

20. Experimental and natural recombination in Trypanosoma cruzi

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Genetic diversity of T. cruzi
• Experimental recombination
• Recombination in natural populations
• Conclusions and future research
• Acknowledgments
• References

21. Trypanosoma cruzi and the model of predominant clonal evolution

• Abstract
• Introduction
• An indispensable recall of evolutionary genetics
• The results: how does T. cruzi evolve?
• Conclusion: Trypanosoma cruzi should be a star in the field of pathogen population genetics
• Glossary of specialized terms
• Acknowledgment
• References

22. Vector transmission: How it works, what transmits, where it occurs

• Abstract
• How does transmission work?
• Who transmits the parasite?
• Where does the transmission occur?
• The perception of vectors and a need for education
• References

23. Maternal–fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi

• Abstract
• From maternal–fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi to congenital Chagas disease: definitions and limits
• Epidemiological aspects of congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi
• Routes of maternal–fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi
• Timing of maternal–fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi
• Parasitic factors involved in transplacental transmission and development of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in fetuses/newborns
• Maternal factors involved in transmission and development of Trypanosoma cruzi infection
• Interactions between the maternal and fetal immune systems
• Fetal/neonatal factors involved in the development of congenital Chagas disease
• Vertical transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in other mammals
• Pregnancy outcomes, clinical manifestations, and long-term consequences of congenital Chagas disease
• Laboratory diagnosis of congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi
• Treatment of congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi
• Prevention and control of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection
• Conclusions
• References

24. Other forms of transmission: Blood transfusion, organ transplantation, laboratory accidents, oral and sexual transmission

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Blood transfusion
• Organ transplantation
• Laboratory-acquired contamination
• Oral transmission
• Sexual transmission
• References

25. Protective host response to Trypanosoma cruzi and its limitations

• Abstract
• Innate immune response in T. cruzi infection
• Adaptive immune response: induction, characterization, and role of the T cell response
• Adaptive immune response: the B cell response and production of antibodies
• Deregulations of T and B lymphocyte responses
• Escape mechanisms of T. cruzi to the immune responses
• Conclusion
• References

26. Cell invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi and the type I interferon response

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Attachment to the host cell and parasite homing
• Nonphagocytic cell invasion by T. cruzi
• Escape from the lysosome
• Host cellular processes required for T. cruzi invasion
• Global transcriptional responses to T. cruzi infection: type I IFN response
• Type I IFNs
• Signaling pathways involved in type I IFN production in T. cruzi infected cells
• Type I IFN responses to T. cruzi infection in the mouse model
• The balance between type I and type II IFN responses during infection with intracellular pathogens
• Concluding remarks
• Acknowledgments
• Glossary
• References

27. Human genetic susceptibility to Chagas disease

• Abstract
• Phenotypes for study
• Heritability
• Candidate gene studies
• Genetic associations from candidate gene studies to date
• HLA
• Focusing on the MHC class III region
• Chemokines and their receptors
• Cytokines and their receptors
• Other genes
• Genome-wide association studies
• The future
• References

28. Clinical phases and forms of Chagas disease

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Acute phase
• Chronic phase
• Concluding remarks
• Glossary
• References

29. Diagnosis of Trypanosoma cruzi infection

• Abstract
• Introduction
• History of diagnosis in Chagas disease
• Diagnosis of T. cruzi infection
• Parasitological tests
• Serological tests
• Blood banks, serology, and quality control for Chagas disease
• Application of diagnostic tests in different contexts
• Quality control in serology
• Prophylaxis to avoid accidental contamination
• Future perspectives
• References

30. AIDS and Chagas’ disease

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology of Chagas’ disease in Latin America and Argentina
• Natural history of Chagas’ disease
• Pathogenic mechanisms of Chagas’ disease reactivation in AIDS patients
• AIDS and Chagas’ disease
• Clinical aspects
• Laboratory diagnosis
• Diagnosis of chagasic meningoencephalitis
• Diagnosis of chagasic tumor-like lesions
• Diagnosis of heart compromise
• Differential diagnosis
• Treatment
• Conclusion
• Glossary of specialized terms of this chapter
• References

31. Treatment of Chagas disease

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Drugs which inhibit protein or purine synthesis
• Inhibitors of ergoesterol
• Ofloxacine
• Inhibitors of trypanothione metabolism
• Inhibitors of cysteine protease (CPI)
• Inhibitors of phospholipids
• Inhibitors of pyrophosphate metabolism
• Natural drugs
• Other drugs
• Treatment of human infection
• Resistance of T. cruzi to drugs
• Glossary
• References

32. Vaccine development for Chagas disease

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Immune mechanisms associated with protection against Trypanosoma cruzi infection
• DNA vaccination in experimental models of Trypanosoma cruzi infection
• Vaccination with attenuated parasites (premunition)
• Final considerations
• Acknowledgments
• References