Algal Bioreactors

Vol 2: Science, Engineering and Technology of Downstream Processes

1st Edition - November 21, 2024
Editors: Eduardo Jacob-Lopes, Leila Queiroz Zepka, Mariany Costa Depra
Language: English
Paperback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 3 - 1 4 0 5 9 - 4
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 3 - 1 4 0 5 7 - 0

Algal Bioreactors: Science, Engineering and Technology of Downstream Processes, Volume Two, is part of a comprehensive two-volume set that provides the knowledge needed to design… Read more

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Algal Bioreactors: Science, Engineering and Technology of Downstream Processes, Volume Two, is part of a comprehensive two-volume set that provides the knowledge needed to design, develop, and operate algal bioreactors for the production of renewable resources. Supported by critical parameters and properties, mathematical models and calculations, methods, and practical real-world case studies, readers will find everything they need to know on the upstream and downstream processes of algal bioreactors for renewable resource production.

Bringing together renowned experts in microalgal biotechnology, this book will help researchers, scientists, and engineers from academia and industry overcome barriers and advance the production of renewable resources and renewable energy from algae. Students will also find invaluable explanations of the fundamentals and key principles of algal bioreactors, making it an accessible read for students of engineering, microbiology, biochemistry, biotechnology, and environmental sciences.

Title of Book
Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Contributors
About the editors
Foreword
Preface
Part I. Fundamentals of algal downstream processes
Chapter 1. Conventional and advances approaches in algal downstream processes
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Technologies for harvesting microalgae
1.2.1 Sedimentation
1.2.2 Coagulation–flocculation
1.2.3 Centrifugation
1.2.4 Flotation
1.2.5 Filtration membranes
1.3 Pretreatment and extraction of specific molecules from microalgae biomass
1.3.1 Drying
1.3.2 Cellular rupture mechanisms
1.3.2.1 Mechanical methods
1.3.2.2 Nonmechanical methods
1.3.3 Pigment extraction
1.3.3.1 Chlorophylls
1.3.3.2 Carotenoids
1.3.3.3 Phycobiliproteins
1.3.4 Protein extraction
1.3.5 Fatty acid extraction
1.3.6 Carbohydrate extraction
1.4 Encompassing the downstream cost of employing dry versus wet biomass from microalgae
1.5 Pondering downstream processing and its environmental impact
1.6 Future perspectives and conclusion
Chapter 2. Importance of biological knowledge in the downstream of microalgae-based processes and products
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Framework of downstream techniques for microalgae-based biorefinery
2.2.1 Algal harvesting strategies
2.2.2 Processing of algal biomass into biofuel and value-added products
2.3 Factors influencing the selection of microalgal downstream strategies
2.3.1 Algal morpho-physiology and biochemical properties
2.3.2 Operational process parameters during algal cultivation
2.4 Scale-up of microalgal downstream strategies
2.4.1 Biological constraints in algal processes
2.4.2 Insights into enviro-economic constraints in algal processes
2.5 Conclusion and future perspectives
Acknowledgment
Chapter 3. The importance of downstream processes in algal biorefinery concept
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Algal biorefinery
3.3 Downstream processes in algal biorefinery
3.3.1 Cell disruption
3.3.1.1 Mechanical techniques
3.3.1.2 Nonmechanical techniques
3.3.2 Harvesting
3.3.2.1 Thickening
3.3.2.2 Dewatering
3.3.3 Drying
3.3.3.1 Thermal drying
3.3.3.2 Spray drying
3.3.3.3 Microwave drying
3.3.3.4 Freeze drying
3.3.4 Extraction
3.3.4.1 Mechanical methods
3.3.4.2 Chemical methods
3.3.5 Separation and purification
3.3.5.1 Electrophoresis
3.3.5.2 Membrane-based separation
3.3.5.3 Aqueous two-phase systems
3.3.5.4 Three-phase systems
3.3.5.5 Chromatography
3.4 Challenges and future prospects
3.5 Conclusions
Part II. Engineering and technology approach to harvesting, dewatering, and drying in algal processes
Chapter 4. Implementation of gravity sedimentation in microalgae downstream processes: Principles, advances, and challenges
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basic principle, advantage, and disadvantages of gravity sedimentation
4.3 Factors influencing on sedimentation process efficiency
4.3.1 Size and shape of microalgae cells
4.3.2 Particles density
4.3.3 Zeta potential
4.3.4 pH
4.3.5 Ionic strength
4.3.6 Growth phase of microalgae
4.4 Enhancing sedimentation process
4.4.1 Improving sedimentation process with flocculation
4.4.1.1 Enhancing sedimentation process with inorganic or organic flocculants
4.4.1.2 Enhancing sedimentation process with pH adjustment (autoflocculation)
4.4.2 Enhancing sedimentation process with floatation
4.4.3 Enhancing settling velocity with sedimentation tanks
4.4.4 Enhancing sedimentation process with lamellar separators
4.4.5 Enhancing sedimentation process with biomass recycling
4.5 Conclusion
Chapter 5. Current progress on filtration techniques for recovery of microalgae-based products
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Membrane photobioreactors
5.2.1 Carbonation membrane photobioreactor (C-MPBR)
5.2.2 Gas–liquid membrane contactor
5.2.2.1 Liquid–liquid membrane contactor
5.2.2.2 Membrane sparger
5.2.3 Oxygen permeation membrane photobioreactor
5.2.4 Biomass retention membrane photobioreactor
5.2.5 Bacteria–microalgae consortia
5.2.6 Dialysis membrane photobioreactor
5.3 Microalgae harvesting
5.3.1 Membrane technology for microalgae harvesting
5.3.1.1 Osmotic-driven membrane technology
5.3.1.2 Active layer–facing draw solution
5.3.1.3 Active layer–facing feed solution
5.3.1.4 Membrane orientation selection
5.3.1.5 Performance of osmotic-driven membrane filtration
5.3.2 Pressure-driven membrane process
5.3.3 Filtration processes
5.3.3.1 Dead-end and crossflow filtrations
5.3.3.2 Osmotic filtration
5.3.3.3 Submerged filtration
5.3.3.4 Dynamic filtration
5.3.3.5 Flocculation-assisted membrane filtration
5.3.3.6 Electrochemical filtration
5.3.3.7 Synergistic filtration
5.4 Influential factors in microalgae filtration
5.4.1 Membrane pore size
5.4.2 Membrane surface properties
5.4.3 Pore interconnection
5.4.4 Membrane modifications
5.4.5 Surface patterning
5.4.6 Membrane materials
5.4.7 Microalgae species
5.5 Membrane fouling in microalgae filtration
5.6 Conclusion
Chapter 6. Existing and emerging flotation methods for harvesting algae
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Bulk harvesting
6.2.1 Centrifugation
6.2.2 Filtration and membrane separation
6.2.3 Gravity sedimentation
6.3 Flotation
6.4 Types of flotation
6.4.1 Dissolved air flotation
6.4.2 Dispersed air flotation
6.4.3 Electro-coagulation-flotation
6.4.4 Ballasted flotation
6.4.5 Modifications of flotation systems
6.4.5.1 Microflotation
6.4.5.2 PosiDAF
6.4.5.3 Ozone flotation
6.4.6 Other methods of increasing efficiency
6.5 Coagulants
6.5.1 Metallic salts
6.5.2 Polymers
6.5.3 Cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide
6.5.4 Autoflocculation
6.5.5 Bioflocculation
6.5.6 Cocultivation
6.5.7 Heating
6.5.8 Physical coagulation
6.6 Operational parameters
6.6.1 pH
6.6.2 Salinity
6.6.3 Bubbles
6.6.4 Microalgae cells
6.7 Recommendations
Chapter 7. Recent advancements of coagulation–flocculation in microalgal downstream processes
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Different flocculation process
7.2.1 Physicochemical flocculation
7.2.1.1 Flocculation mediated by metal salt
7.2.1.2 Flocculation mediated by magnetic nanoparticles
7.2.1.3 Electrocoagulation
7.2.1.4 Flocculation mediated by dissolved and dispersed air flotation
7.3 Bioflocculation
7.3.1 Flocculation by algae–algae interaction
7.3.2 Bioflocculation induced by microorganism
7.3.2.1 Bioflocculation by fungal species
7.3.2.2 Bioflocculation by yeast cells
7.3.2.3 Bioflocculation by bacteria
7.3.2.4 Bioflocculation by plant-derived compounds
7.3.2.5 Autoflocculation
7.4 Future perspectives
7.5 Conclusion
Chapter 8. Advances in primary recovery for algae bioreactors: The centrifugation role
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Algae harvesting methods
8.2.1 Centrifugation
8.2.2 Flotation
8.2.3 Flocculation
8.2.4 Sedimentation
8.2.5 Filtration
8.2.6 Screening
8.3 Centrifugation
8.3.1 Centrifuge type
8.3.2 Energy consumption and the economy
8.4 Challenges and opportunities
8.5 Conclusion
Chapter 9. Conventional drying methods to algal biomass: Their applications and recent advances
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Drying algal biomass
9.2.1 Moisture ratio and drying rate
9.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages
9.2.2.1 Recommendations
Part III. Cell rupture, extraction, and separation/purification methods of algal target molecules
Chapter 10. Bead milling for algal cell disruption
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Principle of algal cell disruption by bead milling
10.2.1 Types of bead mill
10.2.2 Energy consumption
10.3 Bead milling reactor
10.3.1 Factors affecting the cell disintegration process
10.4 Bioproducts from algal bead milling
10.5 Final consideration
Chapter 11. Applications of pulsed electric field treatment in downstream processing of microalgae biomass
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Application of PEF technology in biotechnology
11.3 PEF technology in the algal biorefinery
11.4 Biological mechanisms involved in protein recovery and lipid extraction after PEF pretreatment
11.5 Recovery of carbohydrates and pigments
11.6 Upscaling from lab-scale to 200L PBR pilot plant
11.7 Summary
Chapter 12. Cycles of freeze-thawing as an efficient method to microalgal cell disruption
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Cell disruption methods
12.2.1 Limitations and challenges in cell disruption methods
12.3 Freeze-thawing: Principle and mechanism
12.3.1 Impact of freezing and thawing on microalgal cells
12.3.2 Benefits of freeze-thawing cell disruption
12.3.3 Limitations and challenges
12.4 Improving the extraction efficiency of freeze-thawing by increasing the number of cycles
12.4.1 Frequency of freeze-thaw cycles depending on cell wall structure
12.4.2 C-PC determination after freeze-thaw approach
12.4.3 Experimental setting up for the optimal number of freeze-thaw cycles
12.5 Increase cell disruption efficacy via the combination of freeze-thawing with other methods
12.5.1 Mechanical cell disruption methods combined with freeze-thawing
12.5.2 Nonmechanical cell disruption method combined with freeze-thawing
12.5.2.1 Physical cell disruption
12.5.2.2 Chemical cell disruption
12.5.2.3 Biological cell disruption
12.6 Conclusion
Chapter 13. Osmotic shock pretreatment: An alternative cell disruption for extraction from wet microalgal biomass
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Cell disruption techniques
13.3 Comparison of various cell disruption methods
13.4 Osmotic shock pretreatment in freshwater microalgae
13.5 Osmotic shock pretreatment in marine microalgae
13.6 Impact of osmotic shock on cell physiology and cell wall integrity
13.7 Effect of osmotic shock on the yield of biomolecules
13.7.1 Carbohydrates
13.7.2 Lipids
13.7.3 Proteins
13.8 Merits and demerits of osmotic shock pretreatment
13.9 Perspectives and future directions
13.10 Conclusions
Chapter 14. Enzymatic treatment for biological disruption of algal cells
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Enzyme selectivity and efficiency
14.3 Reaction conditions
14.4 Comparison between traditional methods and enzymatic hydrolysis
Chapter 15. Surface-active agents for the disruption of algal cell walls: An alternative for lipid extraction
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Existing methods of microalgal cell disruption and lipid extractions
15.2.1 Microalgal cell disruption methods
15.2.1.1 Mechanical cell disruption methods
15.2.1.2 Nonmechanical cell disruption methods
15.2.2 Limitations of existing cell disruption methods
15.2.3 Lipid extraction methods
15.2.3.1 Organic solvent extraction
15.2.3.2 Supercritical fluid extraction
15.2.3.3 Ionic liquid extraction
15.3 Surface-active agents: New alternative approach of lipid extraction
15.3.1 Mechanism of microalgal cell disruption by surface-active agents/surfactants
15.3.2 Advantages of surfactant-assisted lipid extraction method
15.3.3 Cationic surface-active agents for lipid extraction
15.3.4 Anionic and nonionic surface-active agents for lipid extraction
15.4 Future prospects of surface-active agents for microalgal lipid extraction
15.5 Conclusion
Chapter 16. Microwave pretreatment: A promising strategy to improve the clean extraction yield of microalgae-based products
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Microwave-assisted extraction instrumentation and operation parameters
16.3 MAE pretreatment of algal biomass with water and water-based buffers
16.3.1 Phycobiliproteins
16.3.2 Alkali-assisted MW pretreatment
16.3.3 MAE treatment with solvents
16.3.3.1 Total lipids
16.3.3.2 Direct transesterification for biodiesel production
16.3.3.3 Carotenoids
16.4 MAE treatment with ionic liquids
16.5 Combination of MAE with other green processes for microalgal pretreatment
16.6 Recent trends and future perspectives for MAE pretreatment of microalgae
16.7 Challenges in MAE pretreatment of microalgae
16.8 Summary
Chapter 17. Ultrasound-assisted extraction: Benefits and drawbacks in obtaining algal extracts
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Overview of the extraction techniques and algal extracts
17.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
17.3.1 Principle and working mechanism
17.3.2 Factors influencing the UAE
17.3.3 Equipment to carry out the UAE
17.4 Application of UAE in algae
17.4.1 Examples of the application of UAE in algae
17.4.2 Advantages
17.4.3 Drawbacks
17.5 Comparison of UAE with other extraction techniques
17.6 Innovations in UAE and future trends
17.7 Conclusions and recommendations
Chapter 18. Supercritical fluids for extraction of microalgae-based products
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Supercritical fluid extraction of pigments from microalgae
18.3 Extraction of total lipid from microalgae using supercritical fluid extraction
18.3.1 Downstream processing of EPA and DHA via SFE
18.4 Recent advancement in extraction methods of HVRs
18.4.1 Traditional extraction methodologies
18.4.1.1 Folch and bligh & dyer
18.4.1.2 Soxhlet
18.4.2 Emerging extraction methodologies
18.4.2.1 Expeller press and bead beating
18.4.2.2 Microwave-assisted extraction
18.4.2.3 Maceration
18.4.2.4 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
18.4.2.5 Accelerated solvent extraction
18.4.2.6 Ionic liquids
18.4.2.7 Sugaring out extraction in liquid biphasic floatation system
18.4.2.8 Deep eutectic solvents
18.5 Conclusions
Chapter 19. Principles and applications of hydrothermal liquefaction of microalgae
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Principles of hydrothermal liquefaction
19.2.1 Products from HTL
19.2.2 Hydrothermal processing
19.2.3 The HTL reactor
19.2.4 Microalgae
19.2.5 Microalgae pretreatment
19.2.6 Parameters affecting HTL processing of microalgae
19.2.7 Solvent
19.2.8 Catalysts
19.3 Process schematic for HTL of microalage
19.4 Current studies of hydrothermal liquefaction of microalgae
19.4.1 Wastewater and mixed substrates
19.4.2 Upgrading of biocrude
19.5 Modeling of HTL kinetics
19.6 Life cycle analysis
19.7 Conclusions and future directions
Chapter 20. Techniques of adsorption, partition, ion exchange, and molecular exclusion for separation of microalgal extracts: Chromatography approaches
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Adsorption
20.3 Partition
20.4 Ion exchange and molecular exclusion
20.5 Conclusion
Chapter 21. Advances in separation by ionic strength: Association of chromatography and ionic liquids or deep eutectic solvents for the purification of microalgae-based products
21.1 Introduction
21.2 ILs and DESs for bioseparations
21.3 Supported ILs and DESs for chromatographic matrices
21.3.1 ILs in chromatographic matrices
21.3.2 DESs in chromatographic matrices
21.4 Recovery of bioproducts from algae biomass using ILs and DESs integrated with chromatography
21.5 Recommendations
Part IV. Techno-economic, sustainable strategies, and innovations for algal downstream processes
Chapter 22. Techno-economic analysis of downstream processing of microalgae
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Large-scale microalgae upstream cultivation methods
22.3 Downstream processing methods
22.4 Economic analysis of the process technology
22.5 Conclusion
Chapter 23. Process intensification approaches applied to the extraction of microalgae-based molecules
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Compounds of interest in microalgae and applications
23.3 Extraction methods
23.4 Technological development of the considered platforms
23.5 Final considerations and future perspectives
Chapter 24. Recent patents and relevant innovations in downstream processes of the microalgae
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Brief review of recent patents related to microalgae
24.3 Downstream processing–related patents
24.3.1 Enzymes for easy biomass utilization
24.3.2 Introduction of deep eutectic solvent (DES) and other new solvents
24.3.3 The successive or recycled productions of microalgae and bacteria
24.3.4 Some instruments for microalgae biomass treatments
24.4 Summary
Index

Eduardo Jacob-Lopes

Prof. Eduardo Jacob-Lopes is currently associate professor at the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. He has more than 18 years of teaching and research experience. He is a technical and scientific consultant of several companies, agencies, and scientific journals. He has more than 600 publications/communications and has registered 15 patents. His research interest includes biotechnology and bioengineering with emphasis on microalgal biotechnology.

Affiliations and expertise

Associate Professor, Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil

Leila Queiroz Zepka

Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an Associate professor at the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM). She has more than 15 years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 500 scientific publications/communications, which include 10 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 350 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of 5 journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interest includes microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.

Affiliations and expertise

Associate Professor, Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil

Mariany Costa Depra

Dr. Mariany Costa Deprá is currently a researcher at the Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She is a technical and scientific consultant of companies and scientific journals. With more than 100 publications/communications, her research interest includes process engineering with emphasis on sustainability metrics and indicators.

Affiliations and expertise

Food Science and Technology Department, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil

Life Sciences

Physical Sciences & Engineering

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Algal Bioreactors

Vol 2: Science, Engineering and Technology of Downstream Processes

Purchase options

Save 50% on book bundles

Institutional subscription on ScienceDirect

Eduardo Jacob-Lopes

Leila Queiroz Zepka

Mariany Costa Depra