
Algal Bioreactors
Vol 1: Science, Engineering and Technology of upstream processes
- 1st Edition - November 21, 2024
- Imprint: Woodhead Publishing
- Editors: Eduardo Jacob-Lopes, Leila Queiroz Zepka, Mariany Costa Depra
- Language: English
- Paperback ISBN:9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 3 - 1 4 0 5 8 - 7
- eBook ISBN:9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 3 - 1 4 0 5 6 - 3
Algal Bioreactors: Science, Engineering and Technology of Upstream Processes, Volume One, is part of a comprehensive two-volume set that provides all of the knowledge needed to… Read more

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Request a sales quoteAlgal Bioreactors: Science, Engineering and Technology of Upstream Processes, Volume One, is part of a comprehensive two-volume set that provides all of the knowledge needed to design, develop, and operate algal bioreactors for the production of renewable resources. Supported by critical parameters and properties, mathematical models and calculations, methods, and practical real-world case studies, readers will find everything they need to know on the upstream and downstream processes of algal bioreactors for renewable resource production.
Bringing together renowned experts in microalgal biotechnology, this book will help researchers, scientists, and engineers from academia and industry overcome barriers and advance the production of renewable resources and renewable energy from algae. Students will also find invaluable explanations of the fundamentals and key principles of algal bioreactors, making it an accessible read for students of engineering, microbiology, biochemistry, biotechnology, and environmental sciences.
- Presents the physical, biological, environmental, and economic parameters of upstream processes in the operation and development of algal bioreactors to produce renewable resources
- Explains the main configurations and designs of algal bioreactors, presenting recent innovations and future trends
- Integrates the scientific, engineering, technology, environmental, and economic aspects of producing renewable resources and other valuable bioproducts using algal bioreactors
- Provides real-world case studies at various scales to demonstrate the practical implementation of the various technologies and methods discussed
Students, researchers, scientists, and engineers working across a broad spectrum of fields related to renewable energy production from algae, including biotechnology, process engineering, chemical engineering, environmental science, microbiology, mycology (algae specialists). Industry engineers and practitioners actively involved in the commercial implementation and operation of bioenergy plants and biofuel production operations who are interested in using algae as a feedstock
- Title of Book
- Cover image
- Title page
- Table of Contents
- Copyright
- Contributors
- About the editors
- Foreword
- Preface
- Part I. Fundamentals of algal bioreactors
- Chapter 1. Algal bioreactors: The core of the microalgae-based processes and products
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 History
- 1.3 Basic considerations for the design and operational of algal bioreactors
- 1.3.1 Requirements from the perspective of the algae
- 1.3.2 Requirements from the perspective of the operator
- 1.3.3 Requirements from a commercial perspective
- 1.4 Conclusion
- Chapter 2. Global market and future trends of microalgae-based products
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Microalgae as a sustainable environmental resource
- 2.2.1 Sustainable production of valuable biochemical compounds
- 2.3 Biotechnological applications of microalgae biomass
- 2.3.1 Human nutrition
- 2.3.1.1 Microalgae-based food products
- 2.3.1.2 Challenges and barriers
- 2.3.2 Feed nutrition
- 2.3.2.1 Livestock
- 2.3.2.2 Aquaculture sector
- 2.3.3 Bioactive compounds
- 2.3.3.1 Nutraceuticals
- 2.3.3.2 Pharmaceuticals
- 2.3.4 Biofuels
- 2.3.5 Other applications
- 2.4 Market insights: Industrial production and compounds of microalgal biomass
- 2.4.1 Overview of the world microalgae production
- 2.4.2 The growing microalgae market
- 2.5 Challenges and future directions
- Chapter 3. Innovation management on microalgae-based processes and products
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.2 State-of-the-art
- 3.2.1 Systematic literature review
- 3.2.2 The common research trends and meta-analysis
- 3.3 Conclusions
- Chapter 4. Circular bio-based economy of microalgae-based processes and products
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Bio-based products from microalgae
- 4.2.1 Microalgae as food source
- 4.2.2 Microalgae as biofuel feedstock
- 4.2.3 Microalgae-based fish and animal feed production
- 4.2.4 Microalgae bioplastics
- 4.3 Principles of circular economy and their application in microalgae-based processes and products
- 4.4 Closed-loop cultivation systems
- 4.4.1 Biorefineries for resource optimization
- 4.4.2 Synergy with other industries
- 4.4.3 Valorization of waste and by-products
- 4.4.4 Eco-friendly harvesting techniques
- 4.4.5 Extending product life and reusability
- 4.4.6 Collaboration and knowledge sharing
- 4.5 Challenges and prospects of commercializing microalgae-based processes and products
- 4.5.1 Challenges of scaling up microalgae-based processes
- 4.5.1.1. Cultivation efficiency
- 4.5.1.2 Contamination control
- 4.5.1.3 Cost-effective growth media
- 4.5.1.4 Harvesting and dewatering
- 4.5.1.5 Downstream processing
- 4.5.1.6 Strain selection and genetic engineering
- 4.5.2 Opportunities of scaling up microalgae-based processes
- 4.5.2.1 Sustainable biofuels
- 4.5.2.2 Nutritional supplements
- 4.5.2.3 Pharmaceuticals
- 4.5.2.4 Bioremediation
- 4.5.2.5 Cosmetics and personal care
- 4.6 Case studies of microalgae-based processes and products in the circular economy
- 4.6.1 Case study 1
- 4.6.2 Case study 2
- 4.6.3 Case study 3
- 4.7 Microalgae-based processes and products' future in a sustainable and circular bio-based economy
- 4.8 Conclusion and recommendations for further research
- Part II. Science and engineering of algal bioreactors
- Chapter 5. Optimal growth and culture conditions for algae in bioreactors
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 Cultivation systems
- 5.2.1 Open systems
- 5.2.2 Closed systems
- 5.2.2.1 Tubular photobioreactors
- 5.2.2.2 Flat-plate photobioreactors
- 5.2.2.3 Column photobioreactors
- 5.2.3 Other configurations of bioreactors
- 5.2.4 Hybrid cultivation systems
- 5.3 Microalgae cultivation parameters
- 5.3.1 Light
- 5.3.2 Temperature
- 5.3.3 Nutrient availability
- 5.3.4 pH
- 5.3.5 Manipulation of cultivation parameters
- 5.4 Growth regime and carbon source
- 5.4.1 Inorganic carbon
- 5.4.2 Organic carbon
- 5.4.2.1 Wastewater use as an organic carbon source
- 5.5 Conclusions and recommendations
- Chapter 6. Predictive models of algal growth in bioreactors
- 6.1 Introduction
- 6.2 Kinetic parameters for microalgae growth
- 6.3 Mass and energy balances
- 6.4 Predictive mathematical models
- 6.5 Conclusions and outlook
- Chapter 7. Transport phenomena assessment in algal bioreactors
- 7.1 Introduction
- 7.2 Type of algal bioreactors and their characteristics
- 7.3 Design aspects of photobioreactors related to transport phenomena
- 7.3.1 Rheological properties
- 7.3.2 Mechanical and pneumatic mixing and their flow patterns
- 7.3.2.1 Flow patterns of mechanical and pneumatic mixing in PBRs
- 7.3.2.2 Parameters for assessing mixing efficiency
- 7.3.3 Mass transport in phototrophic cultures
- 7.3.4 Heat and light transport in algal bioreactors
- 7.4 Recommendations
- Chapter 8. Mixing and agitation requirements in algal bioreactors
- 8.1 Introduction
- 8.2 Mixing devices
- 8.3 Stirred tank—terminology and nomenclature
- 8.4 Dimensionless numbers
- 8.5 Impeller selection
- 8.5.1 Hydrofoils
- 8.5.2 Mixed-flow impellers
- 8.5.3 Radial flow impellers
- 8.6 Scale-up/down of stirred tanks
- 8.7 Oxygen transfer rate and scale-up
- 8.8 Bioreactor design recommendations
- Nomenclature
- Chapter 9. Hydrodynamic performance of algal bioreactors
- 9.1 Introduction
- 9.2 Photobioreactor hydrodynamics
- 9.2.1 Mixing
- 9.2.2 Superficial gas velocity (or gas flow rate)
- 9.2.3 Bubble size and velocity
- 9.2.4 Gas holdup
- 9.2.5 Liquid velocity
- 9.2.6 Mass transfer coefficient
- 9.3 Conclusions
- Chapter 10. Heat transfer in algal bioreactors
- 10.1 Introduction
- 10.2 Mechanisms of heat transfer
- 10.2.1 Conduction
- 10.2.2 Convection
- 10.2.3 Radiation
- 10.2.4 Heat generation during microbial growth
- 10.2.5 Model equation for the batch system (ideal scenario)
- 10.2.6 Design equations for continuous system
- 10.2.7 Case study
- 10.2.8 Steam sterilization
- 10.2.9 Sterilization of gases
- 10.3 Conclusions
- Chapter 11. Thermodynamic principles applied to exergy analysis of algal bioreactors: Enhanced-efficiency approaches for microalgae-based processes
- 11.1 Introduction
- 11.2 The basic concept of exergy
- 11.2.1 Exergy balance
- 11.2.2 Physical exergy
- 11.2.3 Chemical exergy
- 11.2.4 Heat exergy
- 11.3 Case studies
- 11.3.1 Case I
- 11.3.1.1 System descriptions
- 11.3.1.2 Exergy analysis
- 11.3.2 Case II
- 11.3.2.1 System descriptions
- 11.3.3 Exergy analysis
- 11.4 Conclusions
- Chapter 12. Oxygen outgassing and hydrodynamics analysis in microalgal photobioreactors
- 12.1 Introduction
- 12.2 State of the art
- 12.2.1 Photobioreactors
- 12.2.2 Tubular photobioreactors
- 12.2.3 Flat-plate photobioreactors
- 12.2.4 PBR with internal radiation systems
- 12.2.5 Oxygen build-up and outgassing in photobioreactors
- 12.2.6 Hydrodynamic aspects in PBRs
- 12.2.7 Photosynthetic efficiency, mixing and cell damage relationship
- 12.3 Conclusions
- Chapter 13. Light optimization and management technologies for increasing algal bioreactors efficiency
- 13.1 Introduction
- 13.2 Bottlenecks for light exploitation by microalgae
- 13.2.1 Theoretical photosynthetic efficiency
- 13.2.2 Light extinction profile in a PBR and operation at the compensation point
- 13.3 Strategies for sunlight exploitation and management
- 13.3.1 State of the art of microalgae outdoor production
- 13.3.2 Solar trackers
- 13.3.3 Light guides
- 13.3.4 Luminescent solar concentrators and spectral converters
- 13.3.5 Photovoltaics
- 13.3.5.1 Photovoltaic technologies
- 13.3.5.2 Transparent photovoltaic
- 13.3.5.3 Photovoltaic and microalgae
- 13.4 Artificial light supply
- 13.4.1 State of the art of microalgae production using artificial light
- 13.4.2 Technologies for illumination: A comparison
- 13.4.2.1 LED: Matching the spectrum with pigment composition
- 13.4.2.2 Growth, efficiency improvements, and biomass composition under tuned spectrum
- 13.4.2.3 Flashing LED light
- 13.4.2.4 Possible PBR design with artificial illumination
- 13.5 Hybrid systems
- Recommendations
- Chapter 14. Computational analysis and modeling of algal bioreactors performance
- 14.1 Introduction
- 14.2 State-of-the-art
- 14.2.1 Bioreactors
- 14.2.2 Kinetics of algal growth
- 14.2.3 Photosynthesis and radiation
- 14.2.4 Turbulence
- 14.2.5 Experimental data
- 14.2.6 Numerical prediction for square section reactor
- 14.3 Recommendations
- Chapter 15. Internet of things (IoT) use for remote monitoring of algal bioreactors
- 15.1 Introduction
- 15.1.1 Sensors network organization and data protocols
- 15.1.2 Data handling and machine learning approaches
- 15.1.3 Augmented and virtual reality IoT-based approaches
- 15.1.4 Recommendations
- 15.2 Conclusion
- Chapter 16. Process integration approaches applied to algal bioreactors
- 16.1 Introduction
- 16.2 Technologies for algal bioreactors
- 16.2.1 Types and characteristics of algal bioreactors
- 16.2.2 Conventional approach to the algal production process
- 16.3 Process integration
- 16.3.1 Overview and importance of process integration
- 16.3.2 Fundamental concepts of process integration
- 16.3.3 Main concepts of mass integration
- 16.4 Mass integration applied to algal bioreactors
- 16.4.1 Latest research in mass integration
- 16.4.2 Mass integration focused on processes with aquatic biomasses
- 16.5 Case studies
- 16.5.1 Freshwater
- 16.5.2 Wastewater
- Chapter 17. Process intensification approaches applied to microalgae bioreactors
- 17.1 Introduction
- 17.2 Microalgae generalities
- 17.3 Conventional bioreactors for microalgae cultivation
- 17.3.1 Types of photobioreactors
- 17.3.1.1 Annular photobioreactors
- 17.3.1.2 Tubular photobioreactors
- 17.3.1.3 Stirred tank photobioreactors
- 17.3.1.4 Flat-plate photobioreactors
- 17.4 Intensified bioreactors for microalgae cultivation
- 17.5 Future trends on for microalgae cultivation
- 17.6 Concluding remarks
- Chapter 18. Control of biological contamination in microalgae cultures
- 18.1 Introduction
- 18.2 Major biological contaminants and sources of contamination
- 18.3 Detection of biological contaminants
- 18.3.1 Agar plating
- 18.3.2 Microscopy
- 18.3.2.1 Light microscopy
- 18.3.2.2 Fluorescence microscopy
- 18.3.2.3 Electron microscopy
- 18.3.3 Flow cytometry
- 18.3.4 Marker gene and whole-genome sequencing
- 18.3.5 Artificial intelligence and machine learning
- 18.4 Strategies to avoid and control biological contamination
- 18.4.1 Physical control
- 18.4.1.1 Reactor design
- 18.4.1.2 Heat sterilization
- 18.4.1.3 Ultraviolet irradiation
- 18.4.1.4 Filtration
- 18.4.1.5 Ultrasonication
- 18.4.1.6 Pulsed electric fields
- 18.4.2 Environmental pressure
- 18.4.2.1 Salinity
- 18.4.2.2 pH
- 18.4.2.3 Temperature
- 18.4.3 Chemical control
- 18.4.3.1 Ozone disinfection
- 18.4.3.2 Antibiotics
- 18.4.3.3 Fungicides and pesticides
- 18.4.4 Biological control
- 18.4.4.1 Use of targeted pathogens or predators
- 18.4.4.2 Allelopathy
- 18.4.5 Genetic engineering approaches to enhance contamination control
- 18.5 Highlights and recommendations
- Chapter 19. Installations of algal bioreactors: Design and operational issues in commercial plants
- 19.1 Introduction
- 19.1.1 Microalgae and its application
- 19.1.2 Microalgae cultivation systems
- 19.1.3 Purpose of this chapter
- 19.2 Design considerations in photobioreactors
- 19.2.1 Key design parameters
- 19.2.2 State-of-art of commercial microalgae cultivation
- 19.3 Operational challenges in photobioreactors
- 19.3.1 Cleaning and sterilization
- 19.3.2 High operational cost
- 19.3.3 Nutrient supply
- 19.4 Scale up considerations
- 19.4.1 Scale-up strategies
- 19.5 Conclusion and recommendations
- Chapter 20. Scale-up of algal bioreactors for renewable resource production
- 20.1 Complexity of scale-up for algal bioreactors
- 20.1.1 The microalgae growing modes
- 20.1.2 The algal bioreactors
- 20.1.3 The operating modes
- 20.1.3.1 Batch or discontinuous
- 20.1.3.2 Fed-batch
- 20.1.3.3 Semi-batch or semi-continuous
- 20.1.3.4 Continuous
- 20.2 Photobioreactors at the different scales
- 20.2.1 From lab-scale to pilot-scale
- 20.2.2 From pilot scale to industrial scale: Batteries of photobioreactors
- 20.3 Rigorous scale-up of photobioreactors
- 20.3.1 Theoretical background
- 20.3.2 Rigorous scale-up based on Buckingham's π-theorem
- 20.3.3 Scale-up of mixed fed-batch and semicontinuous photobioreactors
- 20.3.3.1 Outlining of the relevance list for the microalgal growth in STRs
- 20.3.3.2 Determination of the π-numbers for the microalgal growth in STRs
- 20.3.4 Scale-up of bubble and airlift photobioreactors
- 20.3.4.1 Outlining of the relevance list for the microalgal growth in ALRs
- 20.3.4.2 Determination of the π-numbers for the microalgal growth in ALRs
- 20.3.5 Organization of the π-space variables
- 20.3.6 Experimental determination of the π-space variables
- 20.4 Conclusions
- Part III. Trends in algal bioreactors design for renewable resource production
- Chapter 21. Raceway ponds for microalgae production
- 21.1 Introduction
- 21.2 Microalgae
- 21.3 Bioreactors
- 21.3.1 Open pond photobioreactors
- 21.3.2 Industrial relevance of raceway ponds
- 21.3.3 Process scaling
- 21.3.3.1 Similarity types
- 21.3.4 Hydrodynamic study
- 21.3.5 Artificial vision and image segmentation
- 21.3.5.1 Velocimetry
- 21.3.5.2 Computational fluid dynamics
- 21.3.5.3 Experimental determination of trajectories, velocity profiles, Re and Fr
- 21.3.5.4 Determination of P, NP, Q, NQ, EP
- 21.3.6 Dead zones
- 21.3.7 Tracer particles
- 21.3.8 Imaging and preprocessing
- 21.3.9 Image processing and segmentation using the Fast Distance Transform
- 21.3.10 General factors that affect raceway productivity
- Chapter 22. Heterotrophic microalgal bioreactors
- 22.1 Introduction
- 22.2 Design, geometry, and operation conditions of heterotrophic microalgae bioreactors
- 22.2.1 Heterotrophic microalgae bioreactors
- 22.2.2 General features of bioreactor design
- 22.2.3 Recent trends in designing and operating bioreactors
- 22.3 Scaling-up criteria of heterotrophic bioreactors
- 22.3.1 Challenges during scale-up
- 22.3.2 Control of bioreactors
- 22.3.3 Dissolved oxygen and pH control
- 22.4 Heterotrophic reactors versus photobioreactors
- 22.5 Prospects and challenges
- Nomenclature
- Chapter 23. The application of bubble column photobioreactor for algal cultivation
- 23.1 Introduction
- 23.2 Bottlenecks in the upstream processing
- 23.3 Microalgal cultivation systems
- 23.3.1 Open raceway pond cultivation and its downsides
- 23.3.2 Cultivation of microalgae in closed photobioreactors
- 23.4 Factors affecting microalgae growth in photobioreactors
- 23.4.1 Light intensity and photoperiod
- 23.4.2 Microalgae concentration
- 23.4.3 Mixing and mass transfer
- 23.4.4 Temperature
- 23.5 CO2 and nutrient availability
- 23.6 Bubble column photobioreactor
- 23.6.1 Introduction
- 23.6.2 Hydrodynamics of the bubble column bioreactor
- 23.6.3 Parameter control and optimization
- 23.6.3.1 PAT to monitor biomass concentration
- 23.6.3.2 PAT to monitor cell density
- 23.6.3.3 PAT for protein determination
- 23.6.3.4 PAT for lipids determination
- 23.7 Conclusion
- Chapter 24. Airlift photobioreactors applied to algal production
- 24.1 Introduction
- 24.2 Key factors for microalgae cultivation
- 24.3 ALPBRs applied to microalgae cultivation
- 24.3.1 Design principles
- 24.3.1.1 The crucial points in the development of an ALPBR
- 24.3.1.2 Illumination of the system
- 24.3.1.3 Mixing process for achieving homogeneity
- 24.3.2 Scaling up
- 24.3.2.1 The points considered for developing larger scale ALPBR
- 24.3.2.2 Illumination efficiency at larger scale
- 24.3.2.3 Mixing process to maintain hydrodynamic properties
- 24.3.3 Common applications in lab and pilot scale
- 24.4 Technological perspectives applied to airlift PBRs
- 24.4.1 Novel design strategies
- 24.4.2 Modeling and simulation with computational fluid dynamics
- 24.5 Challenges, recommendations, and conclusion
- Chapter 25. Column photobioreactors applied to algal production: Design, assembly, and operation
- 25.1 Introduction
- 25.2 Modeling and analysis of CPBRs
- 25.3 Column photobioreactors design and operation
- 25.3.1 Principles of column photobioreactor design
- 25.3.2 Column photobioreactor types
- 25.3.2.1 Premixed column photobioreactors
- 25.3.2.2 Bubble column photobioreactors
- 25.3.2.3 Airlift photobioreactors
- 25.3.3 Construction of column photobioreactors
- 25.3.3.1 Cultivation column
- 25.3.4 Lighting strategy
- 25.3.4.1 Light illumination and intensity
- 25.3.4.2 Light utilization
- 25.3.5 Thermal design and temperature control
- 25.3.6 Aeration
- 25.3.6.1 Flow patterns
- 25.3.7 Mixing and agitation
- 25.4 Conclusion
- Nomenclature
- Chapter 26. Tubular photobioreactors applied to algal production
- 26.1 Introduction
- 26.2 State-of-the-art
- 26.2.1 Microalgae growth: Limiting factors
- 26.2.2 Design of tubular PBRs
- 26.2.3 Modeling tubular PBRs to algal production
- 26.3 Recommendations
- Chapter 27. Flat-plate photobioreactors for renewable resources production
- 27.1 Introduction
- 27.2 State of the art in FP-PBR technology
- 27.2.1 State of the art
- 27.2.2 Components of FP-PBR
- 27.2.3 Construction mechanism of FP-PBR
- 27.2.4 FP-PBR design
- 27.2.5 Technical challenges associated with FP-PBR
- 27.2.6 Challenges associated with light in FP-PBR
- 27.2.7 Large-scale FP-PBRs for commercial production
- 27.2.8 Batch versus continuous production in FP-PBR
- 27.2.9 Why FB-PBR is most convenient for renewable resources production?
- 27.3 Future trends in FP-PBR design and development
- 27.4 Upstream and downstream integration of renewable resources production in FP-PBR
- 27.5 Recommendations
- Chapter 28. Plastic bag photobioreactors applied to algal production
- 28.1 Introduction
- 28.2 General characteristics of plastic bag photobioreactors
- 28.2.1 Materials
- 28.2.2 Bag longevity and sterilization methods
- 28.3 Advantages and disadvantages of plastic bag reactors
- 28.3.1 Advantages
- 28.3.1.1 Initial cost
- 28.3.1.2 Easiness of startup and maintenance
- 28.3.1.3 Flexibility in shape
- 28.3.1.4 Flexibility in material
- 28.3.1.5 Cleanliness
- 28.3.2 Challenges and potential solutions
- 28.3.2.1 Cost of maintenance
- 28.3.2.2 Durability
- 28.3.2.3 Plastic waste
- 28.4 Existing plastic bag reactors (classified by the shape)
- 28.4.1 Tubular and flat bag reactors
- 28.4.1.1 Tubular reactors
- 28.4.1.2 Flat horizontal bag reactors
- 28.4.2 Column and flat-panel reactors
- 28.4.2.1 Hanging bag reactors
- 28.4.2.2 Frame-assisted reactors
- 28.4.2.3 Underwater reactors
- 28.4.3 Floating reactors
- 28.4.3.1 OMEGA
- 28.4.3.2 Floating photobioreactor with internal partitions
- 28.4.3.3 Floating inflatable photobioreactors without aeration devices
- 28.4.3.4 Floating cradle photobioreactor
- 28.4.4 Membrane reactors
- 28.5 Future perspectives
- 28.5.1 Functionality by shape
- 28.5.2 Functionality by material
- 28.6 Conclusions
- Chapter 29. Membrane photobioreactors applied to microalgae-based processes
- 29.1 Introduction
- 29.2 State of the art
- 29.2.1 Biomass retention membrane photobioreactors: Main configurations
- 29.2.2 Factors affecting process performance in MF/UF-MPBRs for wastewater treatment
- 29.2.2.1 Wastewater characteristics and microalgae species
- 29.2.2.2 Photobioreactor configuration and environmental and operating conditions
- 29.2.2.3 Membrane process and fouling control
- 29.3 Recommendations
- Chaptert 30. Hybrid and nonconventional photobioreactors applied to microalgae production
- 30.1 Introduction
- 30.2 Processing parameters to take into account in the design of photobioreactors
- 30.2.1 Light supply
- 30.2.2 Supply and transfer of gases
- 30.2.3 Mixture
- 30.2.4 Other factors
- 30.3 Types of photobioreactors
- 30.3.1 Tubular photobioreactors
- 30.3.2 Flat-plate photobioreactors
- 30.3.3 Stirred tank fermenter type photobioreactors
- 30.3.4 Nonconventional and hybrid photobioreactors
- 30.4 Final considerations
- Part IV. Bioproducts and bioenergy obtained from algal bioreactors
- Chapter 31. Intensive biomass production in algal bioreactors
- 31.1 Introduction
- 31.2 Open systems
- 31.2.1 Raceways
- 31.2.2 Thin layers
- 31.3 Closed systems
- 31.3.1 Tubular PBR
- 31.3.1.1 Horizontal photobioreactors
- 31.3.1.2 Columns and tubular PBRs with airlift systems
- 31.3.1.3 Helical configurations
- 31.3.2 Flat panel photobioreactors
- 31.3.2.1 Airlift systems
- 31.4 Conclusions
- Chapter 32. Protein and amino acid production in algal bioreactors
- 32.1 Introduction
- 32.2 State of the art
- 32.2.1 Protein content of microalgae
- 32.2.2 Production of algal proteins
- 32.2.3 Uses of microalgal protein
- 32.2.4 Commercially available products
- 32.3 Recommendations
- Chapter 33. Lipids, sterols, and fatty acids production in algal bioreactors
- 33.1 Introduction
- 33.2 Lipids, sterols, and fatty acids in microalgae
- 33.3 Trophic modes and their influence on the lipid fraction
- 33.4 Abiotic factors and their influence on the lipid fraction
- 33.5 Optimization strategies to enhance lipid metabolites in microalgae
- 33.6 Extraction methods: Emergent technologies
- 33.7 Prospects and recommendations: Future and challenges in algal bioreactors for lipids, sterols, and fatty acids production
- Chapter 34. Natural pigments production in algal bioreactors
- 34.1 Introduction
- 34.2 Commercial microalgae culture systems: Pigment production
- 34.3 Exploring the unique aspects of manufacturing pigments based on microalgae
- 34.3.1 Dunaliella salina for β-carotene production
- 34.3.2 Haematococcus pluvialis for astaxanthin production
- 34.3.3 Arthrospira platensis for phycocyanin production
- 34.3.4 Chlorella sp. for chlorophyll production
- 34.4 Biosynthesis of pigments in microalgae
- 34.5 Challenges
- 34.6 Conclusion
- Chapter 35. Algal bioreactors for phycoprospecting: An emphasis on algae culturing
- 35.1 Introduction
- 35.2 Algae source
- 35.3 Isolation and establishment of monocultures
- 35.3.1 Single cell isolation
- 35.3.2 Agar-based methods
- 35.4 Axenic culture
- 35.5 Density gradient centrifugation
- 35.6 Antibiotics treatment
- 35.6.1 Antimicrobial agents
- 35.7 Ultraviolet radiation
- 35.8 Flow cytometer cell sorter–based isolation
- 35.8.1 Media
- 35.8.2 Freshwater culture media (Table 35.1)
- 35.8.3 Marine culture media (Table 35.2)
- 35.8.4 Photobioreactor and its types
- 35.8.5 Open pond systems
- 35.8.6 Circular ponds
- 35.8.7 Inclined surface system/thin film systems
- 35.8.8 Tubular photobioreactor
- 35.9 Vertical column photobioreactor
- 35.9.1 Airlift photobioreactors
- 35.9.2 Crucial factors influencing photobioreactor efficiency
- 35.9.3 Light utilization
- 35.9.4 pH control
- 35.9.5 Temperature
- 35.9.6 Carbon dioxide uptake
- 35.9.7 Agitation and mixing
- 35.9.8 Microalgae as potential food supplements
- 35.9.9 Nutraceuticals from microalgae
- 35.9.10 Microalgae as lipid source
- 35.9.11 Microalgae in animal feeds
- Chapter 36. Biomedical applications of algal-based products
- 36.1 Introduction
- 36.2 Bioactive compounds
- 36.2.1 Polysaccharides
- 36.2.2 Amino acids, peptides and proteins
- 36.2.3 Fatty acids
- 36.2.4 Pigments
- 36.2.5 Minerals and vitamins
- 36.2.6 Enzymes
- 36.3 Anticancer and immunomodulatory properties
- 36.4 Antidiabetic activity
- 36.5 Cardioprotective activities
- 36.6 Drug delivery
- 36.7 Tissue engineering
- 36.8 Conclusions
- Chapter 37. Animal feed production from algal bioreactors
- 37.1 Introduction
- 37.2 Upstream and downstream processes
- 37.2.1 Upstream process
- 37.2.1.1 Cultivation system—pond, PBR
- 37.2.1.2 Open versus closed systems
- 37.2.2 Harvesting and downstream processes
- 37.2.3 Algal biomass characterization
- 37.3 Policy and regulatory factor to algae cultivation
- 37.3.1 Industrial relevant micro-algae and their safety
- 37.3.2 Food safety of human consumption of Spirulina
- 37.3.3 European regulation on marketing of micro-algae for food and feed
- 37.3.4 Regulation on novel foods and novel food ingredients
- 37.4 Economic considerations of microalgae cultivation for animal food and feed
- 37.4.1 Market demand and market value
- 37.4.2 Cost of production
- 37.4.3 Future prospects
- 37.5 Conclusion
- Chapter 38. Biofertilizers, soil conditioners, and biostimulants from microalgae
- 38.1 Introduction
- 38.2 Microalgae as biofertilizers
- 38.2.1 Overview of biofertilizers
- 38.2.2 Types of biofertilizers that can be used to increase soil fertility
- 38.2.3 Benefits of microalgae as biofertilizers
- 38.3 Microalgae as biostimulants
- 38.3.1 Overview of biostimulants
- 38.3.2 Presentation of the categories of biostimulants
- 38.3.3 Benefits of microalgae as biostimulants
- 38.4 Microalgae as soil conditioners
- 38.4.1 Benefits of microalgae as soil conditioners
- Chapter 39. Biohydrogen production in microalgal bioreactors
- 39.1 Introduction
- 39.2 Photobioreactors
- 39.3 Tubular photobioreactor
- 39.4 Flat-panel photobioreactors
- 39.5 Column photobioreactors
- 39.6 Soft frame photobioreactors
- 39.7 Hybrid photobioreactors
- 39.8 Conclusions
- Chapter 40. Biodiesel production from algal bioreactors
- 40.1 Introduction
- 40.2 Algal biodiesel production steps
- 40.2.1 Algal strain selection
- 40.2.2 Site selection
- 40.3 Algal bioreactor systems
- 40.4 Algal growth in bioreactors
- 40.4.1 Open-pond bioreactor systems
- 40.4.2 Photobioreactors
- 40.4.2.1 Tubular bioreactor
- 40.4.2.2 Bubble-column bioreactor
- 40.4.2.3 Airlift bioreactor
- 40.4.2.4 Flat-panel bioreactor
- 40.4.3 Hybrid systems
- 40.5 Algae oil production steps in algal bioreactor
- 40.6 Lipid content of algal oil
- 40.7 Steps in microalgae biodiesel production
- 40.7.1 Biomass dewatering, thickening, and drying
- 40.7.2 Pretreatment of algal biomass
- 40.7.3 Lipid extraction
- 40.7.3.1 Solvent extraction
- 40.7.3.2 Supercritical fluid extraction
- 40.7.3.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
- 40.7.3.4 Microwave-assisted extraction
- 40.7.3.5 Ionic liquids extraction
- 40.7.4 Biodiesel production using transesterification
- 40.8 Biodiesel standards
- 40.9 The biorefinery approach and genetic engineering
- 40.10 Conclusion
- Chapter 41. Bioethanol production in algal bioreactors
- 41.1 Introduction
- 41.2 State of the art
- 41.2.1 Experimental studies for bioethanol production
- 41.2.2 Bioethanol production using microalgae: Machine learning applications and optimization methods
- 41.2.3 Literature survey: Modeling and optimization techniques for enhanced production of bioethanol
- 41.3 Recommendation and future direction
- Chapter 42. Biomethane production in algal bioreactors
- 42.1 Introduction
- 42.2 Anaerobic digestion of microalgae. State-of-the-art
- 42.2.1 Factors influencing biogas yields, bottlenecks in the process
- 42.2.1.1 Harvesting and concentration
- 42.2.1.2 Cell wall
- 42.2.1.3 Salinity
- 42.2.1.4 Low C/N ratios
- 42.2.2 Biomethane production
- 42.3 Recommendations
- Part V. Environmental issues for algal bioreactors
- Chapter 43. Wastewater treatment in algal bioreactors
- 43.1 Introduction
- 43.2 Algal bioreactor systems
- 43.2.1 Types of algal bioreactors
- 43.2.1.1 Open pond systems
- 43.2.1.2 Photobioreactors
- 43.2.1.3 Hybrid systems
- 43.2.2 Design considerations for algal bioreactors
- 43.2.2.1 Reactor configuration and layout
- 43.2.2.2 Nutrients and factors affecting bioreactor performance
- 43.3 Wastewater characterization and pretreatment
- 43.3.1 Composition of wastewater
- 43.3.2 Pretreatment requirements
- 43.3.3 Removal of toxic compounds
- 43.3.4 Nutrient removal and recovery
- 43.4 Pollutant removal mechanisms
- 43.4.1 Nutrient uptake and assimilation
- 43.4.2 Removal of organic matter
- 43.4.3 Heavy metal and pollutant sequestration
- 43.4.4 Pathogen removal and disinfection
- 43.5 Challenges and future perspectives
- 43.5.1 Technological challenges and limitations
- 43.5.2 Future research directions and opportunities
- 43.6 Conclusion
- Chapter 44. Emerging pollutants treatment in algal bioreactors
- 44.1 Introduction
- 44.2 Emerging pollutants
- 44.2.1 Emerging pollutants types and characteristics
- 44.2.2 Emerging pollutants treatment approaches
- 44.2.3 Emerging pollutants analytical method
- 44.3 Algal-based system for removal of emerging pollutants
- 44.3.1 Working mechanism
- 44.3.2 Algae screening
- 44.3.3 Removal performance
- 44.4 Algal bioreactors for emerging pollutants treatment
- 44.4.1 Open bioreactors
- 44.4.2 Closed bioreactors
- 44.4.3 Influencing factors
- 44.5 Research challenges and future perspectives
- 44.6 Conclusion
- Chapter 45. Algal bioreactors as strategies for heavy metal phycoremediation
- 45.1 Introduction
- 45.2 State-of-the-art
- 45.2.1 Mechanisms of heavy metal removal by microalgae
- 45.2.1.1 Mathematical models to understand the biosorption mechanism of HMs
- 45.2.2 Operational factors that influence heavy metal removal by microalgae
- 45.2.3 Bioreactor configurations used for pilot-scale microalgae-based heavy metal removal processes
- 45.3 Recommendations
- Chapter 46. Greenhouse gas control in algal bioreactors
- 46.1 Introduction
- 46.2 Carbon dioxide mitigation technologies
- 46.3 Microalgae-mediated carbon dioxide capture and utilization
- 46.3.1 Microalgae bioreactors for carbon dioxide capture
- 46.4 Approaches to improve carbon capture by microalgae
- 46.5 Conclusion
- Chapter 47. Carbon neutral in algal bioreactors: Is this possible?
- 47.1 Introduction to the climate emergency
- 47.2 Carbon footprint in microalgae-based systems
- 47.3 Roadmap to net-zero emissions in microalgae-based systems
- 47.4 Deficits in microalgae-based systems
- 47.5 Conclusion
- Chapter 48. Avoiding snowballs in algal biotechnology: How can the environmental assessment of bioreactors predict black swans in sustainable bioprocesses?
- 48.1 Introduction
- 48.2 Bioreactors—the core of algal biotechnology
- 48.3 Environmental performance of algal bioreactors
- 48.4 Conclusion, research gaps, and way forward
- Index
- Edition: 1
- Published: November 21, 2024
- Imprint: Woodhead Publishing
- No. of pages: 940
- Language: English
- Paperback ISBN: 9780443140587
- eBook ISBN: 9780443140563
EJ
Eduardo Jacob-Lopes
LQ
Leila Queiroz Zepka
MC