Algal Bioreactors

Vol 1: Science, Engineering and Technology of upstream processes

1st Edition - November 21, 2024
Editors: Eduardo Jacob-Lopes, Leila Queiroz Zepka, Mariany Costa Depra
Language: English
Paperback ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 3 - 1 4 0 5 8 - 7
eBook ISBN:
9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 3 - 1 4 0 5 6 - 3

Algal Bioreactors: Science, Engineering and Technology of Upstream Processes, Volume One, is part of a comprehensive two-volume set that provides all of the knowledge needed to… Read more

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Algal Bioreactors: Science, Engineering and Technology of Upstream Processes, Volume One, is part of a comprehensive two-volume set that provides all of the knowledge needed to design, develop, and operate algal bioreactors for the production of renewable resources. Supported by critical parameters and properties, mathematical models and calculations, methods, and practical real-world case studies, readers will find everything they need to know on the upstream and downstream processes of algal bioreactors for renewable resource production.

Bringing together renowned experts in microalgal biotechnology, this book will help researchers, scientists, and engineers from academia and industry overcome barriers and advance the production of renewable resources and renewable energy from algae. Students will also find invaluable explanations of the fundamentals and key principles of algal bioreactors, making it an accessible read for students of engineering, microbiology, biochemistry, biotechnology, and environmental sciences.

Title of Book
Cover image
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Contributors
About the editors
Foreword
Preface
Part I. Fundamentals of algal bioreactors
Chapter 1. Algal bioreactors: The core of the microalgae-based processes and products
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History
1.3 Basic considerations for the design and operational of algal bioreactors
1.3.1 Requirements from the perspective of the algae
1.3.2 Requirements from the perspective of the operator
1.3.3 Requirements from a commercial perspective
1.4 Conclusion
Chapter 2. Global market and future trends of microalgae-based products
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Microalgae as a sustainable environmental resource
2.2.1 Sustainable production of valuable biochemical compounds
2.3 Biotechnological applications of microalgae biomass
2.3.1 Human nutrition
2.3.1.1 Microalgae-based food products
2.3.1.2 Challenges and barriers
2.3.2 Feed nutrition
2.3.2.1 Livestock
2.3.2.2 Aquaculture sector
2.3.3 Bioactive compounds
2.3.3.1 Nutraceuticals
2.3.3.2 Pharmaceuticals
2.3.4 Biofuels
2.3.5 Other applications
2.4 Market insights: Industrial production and compounds of microalgal biomass
2.4.1 Overview of the world microalgae production
2.4.2 The growing microalgae market
2.5 Challenges and future directions
Chapter 3. Innovation management on microalgae-based processes and products
3.1 Introduction
3.2 State-of-the-art
3.2.1 Systematic literature review
3.2.2 The common research trends and meta-analysis
3.3 Conclusions
Chapter 4. Circular bio-based economy of microalgae-based processes and products
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Bio-based products from microalgae
4.2.1 Microalgae as food source
4.2.2 Microalgae as biofuel feedstock
4.2.3 Microalgae-based fish and animal feed production
4.2.4 Microalgae bioplastics
4.3 Principles of circular economy and their application in microalgae-based processes and products
4.4 Closed-loop cultivation systems
4.4.1 Biorefineries for resource optimization
4.4.2 Synergy with other industries
4.4.3 Valorization of waste and by-products
4.4.4 Eco-friendly harvesting techniques
4.4.5 Extending product life and reusability
4.4.6 Collaboration and knowledge sharing
4.5 Challenges and prospects of commercializing microalgae-based processes and products
4.5.1 Challenges of scaling up microalgae-based processes
4.5.1.1. Cultivation efficiency
4.5.1.2 Contamination control
4.5.1.3 Cost-effective growth media
4.5.1.4 Harvesting and dewatering
4.5.1.5 Downstream processing
4.5.1.6 Strain selection and genetic engineering
4.5.2 Opportunities of scaling up microalgae-based processes
4.5.2.1 Sustainable biofuels
4.5.2.2 Nutritional supplements
4.5.2.3 Pharmaceuticals
4.5.2.4 Bioremediation
4.5.2.5 Cosmetics and personal care
4.6 Case studies of microalgae-based processes and products in the circular economy
4.6.1 Case study 1
4.6.2 Case study 2
4.6.3 Case study 3
4.7 Microalgae-based processes and products' future in a sustainable and circular bio-based economy
4.8 Conclusion and recommendations for further research
Part II. Science and engineering of algal bioreactors
Chapter 5. Optimal growth and culture conditions for algae in bioreactors
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Cultivation systems
5.2.1 Open systems
5.2.2 Closed systems
5.2.2.1 Tubular photobioreactors
5.2.2.2 Flat-plate photobioreactors
5.2.2.3 Column photobioreactors
5.2.3 Other configurations of bioreactors
5.2.4 Hybrid cultivation systems
5.3 Microalgae cultivation parameters
5.3.1 Light
5.3.2 Temperature
5.3.3 Nutrient availability
5.3.4 pH
5.3.5 Manipulation of cultivation parameters
5.4 Growth regime and carbon source
5.4.1 Inorganic carbon
5.4.2 Organic carbon
5.4.2.1 Wastewater use as an organic carbon source
5.5 Conclusions and recommendations
Chapter 6. Predictive models of algal growth in bioreactors
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Kinetic parameters for microalgae growth
6.3 Mass and energy balances
6.4 Predictive mathematical models
6.5 Conclusions and outlook
Chapter 7. Transport phenomena assessment in algal bioreactors
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Type of algal bioreactors and their characteristics
7.3 Design aspects of photobioreactors related to transport phenomena
7.3.1 Rheological properties
7.3.2 Mechanical and pneumatic mixing and their flow patterns
7.3.2.1 Flow patterns of mechanical and pneumatic mixing in PBRs
7.3.2.2 Parameters for assessing mixing efficiency
7.3.3 Mass transport in phototrophic cultures
7.3.4 Heat and light transport in algal bioreactors
7.4 Recommendations
Chapter 8. Mixing and agitation requirements in algal bioreactors
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Mixing devices
8.3 Stirred tank—terminology and nomenclature
8.4 Dimensionless numbers
8.5 Impeller selection
8.5.1 Hydrofoils
8.5.2 Mixed-flow impellers
8.5.3 Radial flow impellers
8.6 Scale-up/down of stirred tanks
8.7 Oxygen transfer rate and scale-up
8.8 Bioreactor design recommendations
Nomenclature
Chapter 9. Hydrodynamic performance of algal bioreactors
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Photobioreactor hydrodynamics
9.2.1 Mixing
9.2.2 Superficial gas velocity (or gas flow rate)
9.2.3 Bubble size and velocity
9.2.4 Gas holdup
9.2.5 Liquid velocity
9.2.6 Mass transfer coefficient
9.3 Conclusions
Chapter 10. Heat transfer in algal bioreactors
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Mechanisms of heat transfer
10.2.1 Conduction
10.2.2 Convection
10.2.3 Radiation
10.2.4 Heat generation during microbial growth
10.2.5 Model equation for the batch system (ideal scenario)
10.2.6 Design equations for continuous system
10.2.7 Case study
10.2.8 Steam sterilization
10.2.9 Sterilization of gases
10.3 Conclusions
Chapter 11. Thermodynamic principles applied to exergy analysis of algal bioreactors: Enhanced-efficiency approaches for microalgae-based processes
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The basic concept of exergy
11.2.1 Exergy balance
11.2.2 Physical exergy
11.2.3 Chemical exergy
11.2.4 Heat exergy
11.3 Case studies
11.3.1 Case I
11.3.1.1 System descriptions
11.3.1.2 Exergy analysis
11.3.2 Case II
11.3.2.1 System descriptions
11.3.3 Exergy analysis
11.4 Conclusions
Chapter 12. Oxygen outgassing and hydrodynamics analysis in microalgal photobioreactors
12.1 Introduction
12.2 State of the art
12.2.1 Photobioreactors
12.2.2 Tubular photobioreactors
12.2.3 Flat-plate photobioreactors
12.2.4 PBR with internal radiation systems
12.2.5 Oxygen build-up and outgassing in photobioreactors
12.2.6 Hydrodynamic aspects in PBRs
12.2.7 Photosynthetic efficiency, mixing and cell damage relationship
12.3 Conclusions
Chapter 13. Light optimization and management technologies for increasing algal bioreactors efficiency
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Bottlenecks for light exploitation by microalgae
13.2.1 Theoretical photosynthetic efficiency
13.2.2 Light extinction profile in a PBR and operation at the compensation point
13.3 Strategies for sunlight exploitation and management
13.3.1 State of the art of microalgae outdoor production
13.3.2 Solar trackers
13.3.3 Light guides
13.3.4 Luminescent solar concentrators and spectral converters
13.3.5 Photovoltaics
13.3.5.1 Photovoltaic technologies
13.3.5.2 Transparent photovoltaic
13.3.5.3 Photovoltaic and microalgae
13.4 Artificial light supply
13.4.1 State of the art of microalgae production using artificial light
13.4.2 Technologies for illumination: A comparison
13.4.2.1 LED: Matching the spectrum with pigment composition
13.4.2.2 Growth, efficiency improvements, and biomass composition under tuned spectrum
13.4.2.3 Flashing LED light
13.4.2.4 Possible PBR design with artificial illumination
13.5 Hybrid systems
Recommendations
Chapter 14. Computational analysis and modeling of algal bioreactors performance
14.1 Introduction
14.2 State-of-the-art
14.2.1 Bioreactors
14.2.2 Kinetics of algal growth
14.2.3 Photosynthesis and radiation
14.2.4 Turbulence
14.2.5 Experimental data
14.2.6 Numerical prediction for square section reactor
14.3 Recommendations
Chapter 15. Internet of things (IoT) use for remote monitoring of algal bioreactors
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Sensors network organization and data protocols
15.1.2 Data handling and machine learning approaches
15.1.3 Augmented and virtual reality IoT-based approaches
15.1.4 Recommendations
15.2 Conclusion
Chapter 16. Process integration approaches applied to algal bioreactors
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Technologies for algal bioreactors
16.2.1 Types and characteristics of algal bioreactors
16.2.2 Conventional approach to the algal production process
16.3 Process integration
16.3.1 Overview and importance of process integration
16.3.2 Fundamental concepts of process integration
16.3.3 Main concepts of mass integration
16.4 Mass integration applied to algal bioreactors
16.4.1 Latest research in mass integration
16.4.2 Mass integration focused on processes with aquatic biomasses
16.5 Case studies
16.5.1 Freshwater
16.5.2 Wastewater
Chapter 17. Process intensification approaches applied to microalgae bioreactors
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Microalgae generalities
17.3 Conventional bioreactors for microalgae cultivation
17.3.1 Types of photobioreactors
17.3.1.1 Annular photobioreactors
17.3.1.2 Tubular photobioreactors
17.3.1.3 Stirred tank photobioreactors
17.3.1.4 Flat-plate photobioreactors
17.4 Intensified bioreactors for microalgae cultivation
17.5 Future trends on for microalgae cultivation
17.6 Concluding remarks
Chapter 18. Control of biological contamination in microalgae cultures
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Major biological contaminants and sources of contamination
18.3 Detection of biological contaminants
18.3.1 Agar plating
18.3.2 Microscopy
18.3.2.1 Light microscopy
18.3.2.2 Fluorescence microscopy
18.3.2.3 Electron microscopy
18.3.3 Flow cytometry
18.3.4 Marker gene and whole-genome sequencing
18.3.5 Artificial intelligence and machine learning
18.4 Strategies to avoid and control biological contamination
18.4.1 Physical control
18.4.1.1 Reactor design
18.4.1.2 Heat sterilization
18.4.1.3 Ultraviolet irradiation
18.4.1.4 Filtration
18.4.1.5 Ultrasonication
18.4.1.6 Pulsed electric fields
18.4.2 Environmental pressure
18.4.2.1 Salinity
18.4.2.2 pH
18.4.2.3 Temperature
18.4.3 Chemical control
18.4.3.1 Ozone disinfection
18.4.3.2 Antibiotics
18.4.3.3 Fungicides and pesticides
18.4.4 Biological control
18.4.4.1 Use of targeted pathogens or predators
18.4.4.2 Allelopathy
18.4.5 Genetic engineering approaches to enhance contamination control
18.5 Highlights and recommendations
Chapter 19. Installations of algal bioreactors: Design and operational issues in commercial plants
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Microalgae and its application
19.1.2 Microalgae cultivation systems
19.1.3 Purpose of this chapter
19.2 Design considerations in photobioreactors
19.2.1 Key design parameters
19.2.2 State-of-art of commercial microalgae cultivation
19.3 Operational challenges in photobioreactors
19.3.1 Cleaning and sterilization
19.3.2 High operational cost
19.3.3 Nutrient supply
19.4 Scale up considerations
19.4.1 Scale-up strategies
19.5 Conclusion and recommendations
Chapter 20. Scale-up of algal bioreactors for renewable resource production
20.1 Complexity of scale-up for algal bioreactors
20.1.1 The microalgae growing modes
20.1.2 The algal bioreactors
20.1.3 The operating modes
20.1.3.1 Batch or discontinuous
20.1.3.2 Fed-batch
20.1.3.3 Semi-batch or semi-continuous
20.1.3.4 Continuous
20.2 Photobioreactors at the different scales
20.2.1 From lab-scale to pilot-scale
20.2.2 From pilot scale to industrial scale: Batteries of photobioreactors
20.3 Rigorous scale-up of photobioreactors
20.3.1 Theoretical background
20.3.2 Rigorous scale-up based on Buckingham's π-theorem
20.3.3 Scale-up of mixed fed-batch and semicontinuous photobioreactors
20.3.3.1 Outlining of the relevance list for the microalgal growth in STRs
20.3.3.2 Determination of the π-numbers for the microalgal growth in STRs
20.3.4 Scale-up of bubble and airlift photobioreactors
20.3.4.1 Outlining of the relevance list for the microalgal growth in ALRs
20.3.4.2 Determination of the π-numbers for the microalgal growth in ALRs
20.3.5 Organization of the π-space variables
20.3.6 Experimental determination of the π-space variables
20.4 Conclusions
Part III. Trends in algal bioreactors design for renewable resource production
Chapter 21. Raceway ponds for microalgae production
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Microalgae
21.3 Bioreactors
21.3.1 Open pond photobioreactors
21.3.2 Industrial relevance of raceway ponds
21.3.3 Process scaling
21.3.3.1 Similarity types
21.3.4 Hydrodynamic study
21.3.5 Artificial vision and image segmentation
21.3.5.1 Velocimetry
21.3.5.2 Computational fluid dynamics
21.3.5.3 Experimental determination of trajectories, velocity profiles, Re and Fr
21.3.5.4 Determination of P, NP, Q, NQ, EP
21.3.6 Dead zones
21.3.7 Tracer particles
21.3.8 Imaging and preprocessing
21.3.9 Image processing and segmentation using the Fast Distance Transform
21.3.10 General factors that affect raceway productivity
Chapter 22. Heterotrophic microalgal bioreactors
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Design, geometry, and operation conditions of heterotrophic microalgae bioreactors
22.2.1 Heterotrophic microalgae bioreactors
22.2.2 General features of bioreactor design
22.2.3 Recent trends in designing and operating bioreactors
22.3 Scaling-up criteria of heterotrophic bioreactors
22.3.1 Challenges during scale-up
22.3.2 Control of bioreactors
22.3.3 Dissolved oxygen and pH control
22.4 Heterotrophic reactors versus photobioreactors
22.5 Prospects and challenges
Nomenclature
Chapter 23. The application of bubble column photobioreactor for algal cultivation
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Bottlenecks in the upstream processing
23.3 Microalgal cultivation systems
23.3.1 Open raceway pond cultivation and its downsides
23.3.2 Cultivation of microalgae in closed photobioreactors
23.4 Factors affecting microalgae growth in photobioreactors
23.4.1 Light intensity and photoperiod
23.4.2 Microalgae concentration
23.4.3 Mixing and mass transfer
23.4.4 Temperature
23.5 CO2 and nutrient availability
23.6 Bubble column photobioreactor
23.6.1 Introduction
23.6.2 Hydrodynamics of the bubble column bioreactor
23.6.3 Parameter control and optimization
23.6.3.1 PAT to monitor biomass concentration
23.6.3.2 PAT to monitor cell density
23.6.3.3 PAT for protein determination
23.6.3.4 PAT for lipids determination
23.7 Conclusion
Chapter 24. Airlift photobioreactors applied to algal production
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Key factors for microalgae cultivation
24.3 ALPBRs applied to microalgae cultivation
24.3.1 Design principles
24.3.1.1 The crucial points in the development of an ALPBR
24.3.1.2 Illumination of the system
24.3.1.3 Mixing process for achieving homogeneity
24.3.2 Scaling up
24.3.2.1 The points considered for developing larger scale ALPBR
24.3.2.2 Illumination efficiency at larger scale
24.3.2.3 Mixing process to maintain hydrodynamic properties
24.3.3 Common applications in lab and pilot scale
24.4 Technological perspectives applied to airlift PBRs
24.4.1 Novel design strategies
24.4.2 Modeling and simulation with computational fluid dynamics
24.5 Challenges, recommendations, and conclusion
Chapter 25. Column photobioreactors applied to algal production: Design, assembly, and operation
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Modeling and analysis of CPBRs
25.3 Column photobioreactors design and operation
25.3.1 Principles of column photobioreactor design
25.3.2 Column photobioreactor types
25.3.2.1 Premixed column photobioreactors
25.3.2.2 Bubble column photobioreactors
25.3.2.3 Airlift photobioreactors
25.3.3 Construction of column photobioreactors
25.3.3.1 Cultivation column
25.3.4 Lighting strategy
25.3.4.1 Light illumination and intensity
25.3.4.2 Light utilization
25.3.5 Thermal design and temperature control
25.3.6 Aeration
25.3.6.1 Flow patterns
25.3.7 Mixing and agitation
25.4 Conclusion
Nomenclature
Chapter 26. Tubular photobioreactors applied to algal production
26.1 Introduction
26.2 State-of-the-art
26.2.1 Microalgae growth: Limiting factors
26.2.2 Design of tubular PBRs
26.2.3 Modeling tubular PBRs to algal production
26.3 Recommendations
Chapter 27. Flat-plate photobioreactors for renewable resources production
27.1 Introduction
27.2 State of the art in FP-PBR technology
27.2.1 State of the art
27.2.2 Components of FP-PBR
27.2.3 Construction mechanism of FP-PBR
27.2.4 FP-PBR design
27.2.5 Technical challenges associated with FP-PBR
27.2.6 Challenges associated with light in FP-PBR
27.2.7 Large-scale FP-PBRs for commercial production
27.2.8 Batch versus continuous production in FP-PBR
27.2.9 Why FB-PBR is most convenient for renewable resources production?
27.3 Future trends in FP-PBR design and development
27.4 Upstream and downstream integration of renewable resources production in FP-PBR
27.5 Recommendations
Chapter 28. Plastic bag photobioreactors applied to algal production
28.1 Introduction
28.2 General characteristics of plastic bag photobioreactors
28.2.1 Materials
28.2.2 Bag longevity and sterilization methods
28.3 Advantages and disadvantages of plastic bag reactors
28.3.1 Advantages
28.3.1.1 Initial cost
28.3.1.2 Easiness of startup and maintenance
28.3.1.3 Flexibility in shape
28.3.1.4 Flexibility in material
28.3.1.5 Cleanliness
28.3.2 Challenges and potential solutions
28.3.2.1 Cost of maintenance
28.3.2.2 Durability
28.3.2.3 Plastic waste
28.4 Existing plastic bag reactors (classified by the shape)
28.4.1 Tubular and flat bag reactors
28.4.1.1 Tubular reactors
28.4.1.2 Flat horizontal bag reactors
28.4.2 Column and flat-panel reactors
28.4.2.1 Hanging bag reactors
28.4.2.2 Frame-assisted reactors
28.4.2.3 Underwater reactors
28.4.3 Floating reactors
28.4.3.1 OMEGA
28.4.3.2 Floating photobioreactor with internal partitions
28.4.3.3 Floating inflatable photobioreactors without aeration devices
28.4.3.4 Floating cradle photobioreactor
28.4.4 Membrane reactors
28.5 Future perspectives
28.5.1 Functionality by shape
28.5.2 Functionality by material
28.6 Conclusions
Chapter 29. Membrane photobioreactors applied to microalgae-based processes
29.1 Introduction
29.2 State of the art
29.2.1 Biomass retention membrane photobioreactors: Main configurations
29.2.2 Factors affecting process performance in MF/UF-MPBRs for wastewater treatment
29.2.2.1 Wastewater characteristics and microalgae species
29.2.2.2 Photobioreactor configuration and environmental and operating conditions
29.2.2.3 Membrane process and fouling control
29.3 Recommendations
Chaptert 30. Hybrid and nonconventional photobioreactors applied to microalgae production
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Processing parameters to take into account in the design of photobioreactors
30.2.1 Light supply
30.2.2 Supply and transfer of gases
30.2.3 Mixture
30.2.4 Other factors
30.3 Types of photobioreactors
30.3.1 Tubular photobioreactors
30.3.2 Flat-plate photobioreactors
30.3.3 Stirred tank fermenter type photobioreactors
30.3.4 Nonconventional and hybrid photobioreactors
30.4 Final considerations
Part IV. Bioproducts and bioenergy obtained from algal bioreactors
Chapter 31. Intensive biomass production in algal bioreactors
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Open systems
31.2.1 Raceways
31.2.2 Thin layers
31.3 Closed systems
31.3.1 Tubular PBR
31.3.1.1 Horizontal photobioreactors
31.3.1.2 Columns and tubular PBRs with airlift systems
31.3.1.3 Helical configurations
31.3.2 Flat panel photobioreactors
31.3.2.1 Airlift systems
31.4 Conclusions
Chapter 32. Protein and amino acid production in algal bioreactors
32.1 Introduction
32.2 State of the art
32.2.1 Protein content of microalgae
32.2.2 Production of algal proteins
32.2.3 Uses of microalgal protein
32.2.4 Commercially available products
32.3 Recommendations
Chapter 33. Lipids, sterols, and fatty acids production in algal bioreactors
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Lipids, sterols, and fatty acids in microalgae
33.3 Trophic modes and their influence on the lipid fraction
33.4 Abiotic factors and their influence on the lipid fraction
33.5 Optimization strategies to enhance lipid metabolites in microalgae
33.6 Extraction methods: Emergent technologies
33.7 Prospects and recommendations: Future and challenges in algal bioreactors for lipids, sterols, and fatty acids production
Chapter 34. Natural pigments production in algal bioreactors
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Commercial microalgae culture systems: Pigment production
34.3 Exploring the unique aspects of manufacturing pigments based on microalgae
34.3.1 Dunaliella salina for β-carotene production
34.3.2 Haematococcus pluvialis for astaxanthin production
34.3.3 Arthrospira platensis for phycocyanin production
34.3.4 Chlorella sp. for chlorophyll production
34.4 Biosynthesis of pigments in microalgae
34.5 Challenges
34.6 Conclusion
Chapter 35. Algal bioreactors for phycoprospecting: An emphasis on algae culturing
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Algae source
35.3 Isolation and establishment of monocultures
35.3.1 Single cell isolation
35.3.2 Agar-based methods
35.4 Axenic culture
35.5 Density gradient centrifugation
35.6 Antibiotics treatment
35.6.1 Antimicrobial agents
35.7 Ultraviolet radiation
35.8 Flow cytometer cell sorter–based isolation
35.8.1 Media
35.8.2 Freshwater culture media (Table 35.1)
35.8.3 Marine culture media (Table 35.2)
35.8.4 Photobioreactor and its types
35.8.5 Open pond systems
35.8.6 Circular ponds
35.8.7 Inclined surface system/thin film systems
35.8.8 Tubular photobioreactor
35.9 Vertical column photobioreactor
35.9.1 Airlift photobioreactors
35.9.2 Crucial factors influencing photobioreactor efficiency
35.9.3 Light utilization
35.9.4 pH control
35.9.5 Temperature
35.9.6 Carbon dioxide uptake
35.9.7 Agitation and mixing
35.9.8 Microalgae as potential food supplements
35.9.9 Nutraceuticals from microalgae
35.9.10 Microalgae as lipid source
35.9.11 Microalgae in animal feeds
Chapter 36. Biomedical applications of algal-based products
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Bioactive compounds
36.2.1 Polysaccharides
36.2.2 Amino acids, peptides and proteins
36.2.3 Fatty acids
36.2.4 Pigments
36.2.5 Minerals and vitamins
36.2.6 Enzymes
36.3 Anticancer and immunomodulatory properties
36.4 Antidiabetic activity
36.5 Cardioprotective activities
36.6 Drug delivery
36.7 Tissue engineering
36.8 Conclusions
Chapter 37. Animal feed production from algal bioreactors
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Upstream and downstream processes
37.2.1 Upstream process
37.2.1.1 Cultivation system—pond, PBR
37.2.1.2 Open versus closed systems
37.2.2 Harvesting and downstream processes
37.2.3 Algal biomass characterization
37.3 Policy and regulatory factor to algae cultivation
37.3.1 Industrial relevant micro-algae and their safety
37.3.2 Food safety of human consumption of Spirulina
37.3.3 European regulation on marketing of micro-algae for food and feed
37.3.4 Regulation on novel foods and novel food ingredients
37.4 Economic considerations of microalgae cultivation for animal food and feed
37.4.1 Market demand and market value
37.4.2 Cost of production
37.4.3 Future prospects
37.5 Conclusion
Chapter 38. Biofertilizers, soil conditioners, and biostimulants from microalgae
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Microalgae as biofertilizers
38.2.1 Overview of biofertilizers
38.2.2 Types of biofertilizers that can be used to increase soil fertility
38.2.3 Benefits of microalgae as biofertilizers
38.3 Microalgae as biostimulants
38.3.1 Overview of biostimulants
38.3.2 Presentation of the categories of biostimulants
38.3.3 Benefits of microalgae as biostimulants
38.4 Microalgae as soil conditioners
38.4.1 Benefits of microalgae as soil conditioners
Chapter 39. Biohydrogen production in microalgal bioreactors
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Photobioreactors
39.3 Tubular photobioreactor
39.4 Flat-panel photobioreactors
39.5 Column photobioreactors
39.6 Soft frame photobioreactors
39.7 Hybrid photobioreactors
39.8 Conclusions
Chapter 40. Biodiesel production from algal bioreactors
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Algal biodiesel production steps
40.2.1 Algal strain selection
40.2.2 Site selection
40.3 Algal bioreactor systems
40.4 Algal growth in bioreactors
40.4.1 Open-pond bioreactor systems
40.4.2 Photobioreactors
40.4.2.1 Tubular bioreactor
40.4.2.2 Bubble-column bioreactor
40.4.2.3 Airlift bioreactor
40.4.2.4 Flat-panel bioreactor
40.4.3 Hybrid systems
40.5 Algae oil production steps in algal bioreactor
40.6 Lipid content of algal oil
40.7 Steps in microalgae biodiesel production
40.7.1 Biomass dewatering, thickening, and drying
40.7.2 Pretreatment of algal biomass
40.7.3 Lipid extraction
40.7.3.1 Solvent extraction
40.7.3.2 Supercritical fluid extraction
40.7.3.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
40.7.3.4 Microwave-assisted extraction
40.7.3.5 Ionic liquids extraction
40.7.4 Biodiesel production using transesterification
40.8 Biodiesel standards
40.9 The biorefinery approach and genetic engineering
40.10 Conclusion
Chapter 41. Bioethanol production in algal bioreactors
41.1 Introduction
41.2 State of the art
41.2.1 Experimental studies for bioethanol production
41.2.2 Bioethanol production using microalgae: Machine learning applications and optimization methods
41.2.3 Literature survey: Modeling and optimization techniques for enhanced production of bioethanol
41.3 Recommendation and future direction
Chapter 42. Biomethane production in algal bioreactors
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Anaerobic digestion of microalgae. State-of-the-art
42.2.1 Factors influencing biogas yields, bottlenecks in the process
42.2.1.1 Harvesting and concentration
42.2.1.2 Cell wall
42.2.1.3 Salinity
42.2.1.4 Low C/N ratios
42.2.2 Biomethane production
42.3 Recommendations
Part V. Environmental issues for algal bioreactors
Chapter 43. Wastewater treatment in algal bioreactors
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Algal bioreactor systems
43.2.1 Types of algal bioreactors
43.2.1.1 Open pond systems
43.2.1.2 Photobioreactors
43.2.1.3 Hybrid systems
43.2.2 Design considerations for algal bioreactors
43.2.2.1 Reactor configuration and layout
43.2.2.2 Nutrients and factors affecting bioreactor performance
43.3 Wastewater characterization and pretreatment
43.3.1 Composition of wastewater
43.3.2 Pretreatment requirements
43.3.3 Removal of toxic compounds
43.3.4 Nutrient removal and recovery
43.4 Pollutant removal mechanisms
43.4.1 Nutrient uptake and assimilation
43.4.2 Removal of organic matter
43.4.3 Heavy metal and pollutant sequestration
43.4.4 Pathogen removal and disinfection
43.5 Challenges and future perspectives
43.5.1 Technological challenges and limitations
43.5.2 Future research directions and opportunities
43.6 Conclusion
Chapter 44. Emerging pollutants treatment in algal bioreactors
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Emerging pollutants
44.2.1 Emerging pollutants types and characteristics
44.2.2 Emerging pollutants treatment approaches
44.2.3 Emerging pollutants analytical method
44.3 Algal-based system for removal of emerging pollutants
44.3.1 Working mechanism
44.3.2 Algae screening
44.3.3 Removal performance
44.4 Algal bioreactors for emerging pollutants treatment
44.4.1 Open bioreactors
44.4.2 Closed bioreactors
44.4.3 Influencing factors
44.5 Research challenges and future perspectives
44.6 Conclusion
Chapter 45. Algal bioreactors as strategies for heavy metal phycoremediation
45.1 Introduction
45.2 State-of-the-art
45.2.1 Mechanisms of heavy metal removal by microalgae
45.2.1.1 Mathematical models to understand the biosorption mechanism of HMs
45.2.2 Operational factors that influence heavy metal removal by microalgae
45.2.3 Bioreactor configurations used for pilot-scale microalgae-based heavy metal removal processes
45.3 Recommendations
Chapter 46. Greenhouse gas control in algal bioreactors
46.1 Introduction
46.2 Carbon dioxide mitigation technologies
46.3 Microalgae-mediated carbon dioxide capture and utilization
46.3.1 Microalgae bioreactors for carbon dioxide capture
46.4 Approaches to improve carbon capture by microalgae
46.5 Conclusion
Chapter 47. Carbon neutral in algal bioreactors: Is this possible?
47.1 Introduction to the climate emergency
47.2 Carbon footprint in microalgae-based systems
47.3 Roadmap to net-zero emissions in microalgae-based systems
47.4 Deficits in microalgae-based systems
47.5 Conclusion
Chapter 48. Avoiding snowballs in algal biotechnology: How can the environmental assessment of bioreactors predict black swans in sustainable bioprocesses?
48.1 Introduction
48.2 Bioreactors—the core of algal biotechnology
48.3 Environmental performance of algal bioreactors
48.4 Conclusion, research gaps, and way forward
Index

Eduardo Jacob-Lopes

Prof. Eduardo Jacob-Lopes is currently associate professor at the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. He has more than 18 years of teaching and research experience. He is a technical and scientific consultant of several companies, agencies, and scientific journals. He has more than 600 publications/communications and has registered 15 patents. His research interest includes biotechnology and bioengineering with emphasis on microalgal biotechnology.

Affiliations and expertise

Associate Professor, Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil

Leila Queiroz Zepka

Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an Associate professor at the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM). She has more than 15 years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 500 scientific publications/communications, which include 10 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 350 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of 5 journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interest includes microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.

Affiliations and expertise

Associate Professor, Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil

Mariany Costa Depra

Dr. Mariany Costa Deprá is currently a researcher at the Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She is a technical and scientific consultant of companies and scientific journals. With more than 100 publications/communications, her research interest includes process engineering with emphasis on sustainability metrics and indicators.

Affiliations and expertise

Food Science and Technology Department, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil

Life Sciences

Physical Sciences & Engineering

Social Sciences & Humanities

Health

Algal Bioreactors

Vol 1: Science, Engineering and Technology of upstream processes

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Eduardo Jacob-Lopes

Leila Queiroz Zepka

Mariany Costa Depra